COMMON CONCEPTS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES:

1.Learning
• is the acquisition of knowledge and skills that changes a person’s
behavior.
Breur (1993)
• defines learning as” the process whereby novices become more
expert”.
• 2.Metacognition
• the concept has evolved from the study of information processing and
is sometimes defined as thinking about one’s thinking.
• It is a process learners use to gauge their thinking while reading,
studying, trying to learn, or problem solving.
• Brown and Palinscar (1987)
• First recognized that some people are intelligent novices.
• They know what they know and what they don’t know, and they
plan to get the information and understanding they need.
• 3.Memory
• the more we connect new information to old, the more we ruminate
over new information, and the more frequently we recall and think
about it, the more long lasting it will be.
• 4.Transfer
• ability to take information learned in one situation and apply it to
another.
• Successful transfer depends on several factors, ( Lauder , Reynolds
and Angus ,1999; Voss, 1987)
• 1.) The extent to which material was originally learned
• 2.) The ability to retrieve information from memory
• 3.) The way in which the material was taught and learned
• 4) The similarity of the new situation to the original

• Social L earning Theory( Social cognitive Theory)

• Alberta Bendura
• a person best known for his Social Learning Theory, there are several
keys components:
• 1. Modeling
• people learn as they are in constant interaction with their
environment. Most learning occurs as a result of observing other
people’s behavior and its consequences.
• 2. Attention process
• determine which modeled behaviors will be learned.
• 3. Retention process
• refer to the ability to retain modeled behaviors in permanent
memory.
•
• A Model of Adult Learning
• Malcolm Knowles(1984)
• the only scholar to theorize or write about adult learning concepts. In
1970s he began to crusade for a model of education for adults that
was different from the education of children. He adopted the term;
• Andragogy
• to differentiate the teaching of adults from Pedagogy.
• Pedagogy
• the teaching of children.
• Comparison of Pedagogy and Andragogy according to Knowles
• Need to know learn what teacher need to know why they
want them to learn need to learn something
• Self concept perception of being feel responsible for their
dependent on the teaching learning
learning
• Role of experience the teachers experience not adult learn from each other’s
the children's what is count experience
• Readiness to learn must be ready when the ready to learn what they feel the
teacher says they must or they need to know
will not
• Orientation to subject-centered motivation life centered or task centered orient
Learning
• Motivation externally motivated primarily internally motivated, with
some external motivation
• Types of Learning:
• Signal Learning “Or the conditioned response”
• The person develops a general diffuse reaction to a stimulus. (nsg. Aide fear
term skill test/actual)

• Stimulus- Response Learning

• involves developing a voluntary response to a specific stimulus or
combination of stimuli. (nsg. Student/iv not dripping/ci instruct)
• Chaining
• is the acquisition of a series of related conditioned responses or
stimulus – response connections. (iv)
• Verbal Association – a type of chaining and is easily recognized in
the process of learning medical terminology.(thermal-heat-hypernatremia)
• Discrimination Learning
• A great deal can be learned through forming large numbers of
stimulus – response or verbal chains.
• However, the more new chains that are learned, the easier it is to
forget previous chains.
• To learn and retain large numbers of chains, the person has to be able
to discriminate among them.(drug study)
• Concept Learning
• is learning how to classify stimuli into groups represented by a
common concept. (dressing change/concept infection/asepsis concept, symptoms redness swelling/concept
infection)

• Rule Learning
• can be considered a chain of concepts or a relationship between
concepts. (if… relationship. Decubitus ulcer)
• Problem Solving
• To solve problems, the learner must have a clear idea of the problem
or goal being sought and must be able to recall and apply previously
learned rules than relate to the situation. (refresher/urinary infc.. Recall. Raising cath/break
closed sterile tech entry. Combine,a break in closed sterile system wit break in aseptic technique or backflow of urine in
bladder=inf)
• People learn in different unique ways, some are global thinkers some
are analytic, some prefer to learn from auditory sources and some
from visual sources, some process information actively and some
reflectively, some like to learn independent, some in groups.
• LEARNING STYLES
• as the habitual manner in which learners receive and perceive
information, process it, understand it, value it, store it and recall it.
• Learning style Model
• There are dozens of learning style model and instruments to measure
them. They elaborate on the basic concepts of cognitive style that
cross the boundaries of many of the models.
• These concepts include holistic versus analytic thinking, verbal versus
visual representation. Holistic (or global) thinkers want to get the
whole picture quickly, or get the gist of things. They want to see
broad categories before they look at details. They process
information simultaneously rather than step by step manner.
• And they need to see how new information connects to what they
already know and value.

• Kolb’s Theory of Experimental Learning:

• Kolb’s model depicts learning as a four stage cycle:
• (1) having a concrete experience followed
• (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to
• (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations
(conclusions) which are then
• (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new
experiences.
• Kolb’s hypothesized that learners need 4 abilities to be effective:
• A typical presentation of Kolb's two continuums is that the east-west
axis is called the Processing Continuum (how we approach a task),
and the north-south axis is called the Perception Continuum (our
emotional response, or how we think or feel about it).
• Ce – actual experience
• Ro – by observing
• Ac – creating theories to explain what is seen
• Ae – using theories to solve problem
• Kolb’s Four Learning Style:
• 1.) Converger
• a person who learns by abstract conceptualization (AC) and active
experimentation(AE)
• like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with
practical applications.
• Good in decision making and problem solving and likes dealing in
technical works
• 2.) Diverger
• a person who stresses concrete experience (CE) and reflective
observation(RO)
• Excels in imagination and awareness
• They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional,
and tend to be strong in the arts.
• People with the diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with
an open mind and to receive personal feedback.
• 3.)Accomodator
• a person who relies heavily on concrete experience(CE) and active
experimentation(AE).
• act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. Risk taker
• Often used trial and error methods to solve problems
• 4.) Assimilator
• a person who emphasizes abstract conceptualization (AC) and
reflective observation (RO).
• preference is for a concise, logical approach.
• Ideas and concepts are more important than people.
• These people require good clear explanation rather than practical
opportunity.
• They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing
it in a clear logical format.
• Gregorc Cognitive Style Model
• The mind has the mediation abilities of perception and ordering that
is the perception and ordering of knowledge affects how the person
learns.
• Perception ability
• the way you grasp incoming stimuli ranges from abstractness to
concreteness.
• Ordering ability
• the way you arrange and systematize incoming stimuli from sequence
to randomness.
• Field Independence / Dependence Model
• identified a continuum of perception that ranges from a
• Field-independent style in which items are perceived relatively
independently of their surrounding field.
• Analytical, seeing the parts more than the whole
• Field-dependent style-- in a person has difficulty perceiving items
aside from their surrounding field.
• global, seeing the whole more than the part
• Planning and Conducting Classes:
A. The Planning Sequence
• Before you enter the classroom
• 1.) need formulate objectives
• 2.) select and organized content
• 3.) choose teaching methods
• 4.) design assignments
• 5.) decide how are you going to evaluate learning
B. Developing a Course Outline or Syllabus
• The Course Outline should include the following:
• 1.) Name of the course
• 2.) Name of instructor
• 3.) A one paragraph course description
• 4.) A list of Course Objectives
• 5.) Topical outline
• 6.) Teaching methods to be used
• 7.) Textbook or other readings
• 8.) Methods of evaluation
• Course Outline – tells you which topics will be covered
• Syllabus—gives the purpose of the topics.
C. Formulating Objectives
• The value of objectives
• 1.) You need them to guide your selection and handling of course
materials.
• 2.) you need objectives to help you determine whether people in the
class have learned what you have tried to teach.
• 3.) objectives are essential from the learners perspective
• Taxonomy of Objectives:
• Bloom (1984) developed a taxonomy of educational objectives, and
identified 3 learning domain
• 1.) Cognitive(knowing)
a. Knowledge
b. Comprehension
c. Application
d. Analysis
e. Synthesis
f. Evaluation (ex. How much insulin dose to give written narration on how much. 10u reg/20u NPH)
2.) Psychomotor ( doing)
a. You can observe what learners are actually doing when they perform
a skill.
b. Learner can demonstrate what they have learned and you can rate
their performance. (correctly mix 2 types of insulin)
3. Affective Domain( feeling /emotion, valuing)
• Objective are not so easy to write or measure and many educators
avoid writing objectives related to beliefs, attitudes and values.

• Wording of Objectives
a. Course objective (as opposed to class objective) maybe fairly broad
in order to keep the list manageable length. (recognize the parameter of effective
hemo,/ broad not measurable instead list and explain with accuracy)

b. Selecting Content—the general guidelines of course content are

usually prescribed by the curriculum of the school, health agency
for which the educator works.
c. Organizing Content--- lecturers need to be organized, as well as
discussions, role playing, computer applications and problem-based
learning.

SELECTING TEACHING METHODS

• Selection of teaching methods is one of the most complex parts of
teaching, yet it receives the least attention in instructional planning.
• Factors Affecting Choice of Method of Teaching
• 1.) Selection of methods depends on the objectives and type of
learning you are trying to achieve.
• 2.)Choice of teaching strategy also depends on the abilities and
interests of the teacher.
• 3.) Compatibility between teachers and teaching method is
important
• 4.) Number of people in the class
• 5.) An educator’s instructional options are limited to the resources
of the institution.

• Choosing A Textbook:
• provide a stable and uniform source of information for students to
use in their individual study.
• Consideration or Guide When Choosing a Textbook:
• 1.) Evaluate the content, scope, and quality, credibility of authorship,
format and issues like cost, permanency, quality of print,
• Format Includes:
• Table of Contents
• Index
• Organization
• Length
• Graphics
• 2.) Examine some of the chapters , evaluate the accuracy, currency,
and breadth and depth of content.
• 3.) Examine the book’s appearance as to the printing, diagrams or
charts if easy to follow
• 4.) The way in which the book will be used
• 5.) The cost of textbook is a practical issue that should be considered.

• Using a Textbook:
• a. Assign pages for homework, assume that students have read and
understood the material and carry on the next class as if the students
have all the information mentally digested, catalogued, and stored
for future use.
• b.Reinforce the nonreading behavior
• c. Use the information from assigned reading as a basis for classroom
discussion, making sure that everyone participates in the discussion.
• d. Use of ‘ Guided Reading” by Gallo and Gallo (1974) wherein the
instructors do the assigned reading themselves, make some notes
about what to have the learners focus on, and explain to them in
advance how they should read the material and have it will be used
in class. (assign pages pay attention on part topics)
• Pestel (1997)
• Introduced another way called the Discovery Questions to help the
students get the most out of their reading.
• wherein students were assigned short passages to read in class and
questions were distributed to help students understand and evaluate
the material in the text.
• Planning Assignments
• Types of Creative and Worthy Assignments
• 1. Assessment forms or patient teaching materials.
• 2. Problem solving in the real world of nursing and report on the
solutions
• 3. Personal interviews, formulate ideas for research and keeping of
logs and journals
• 4. Concept map of physiologic processes involved in certain medical
conditions.
• Nursing Care Plan—outlines the nursing care to be provided to an
individual/ family/ community. It is a set of actions the nurse will
implement to resolve/ support nursing diagnoses identified by
nursing assessment.

• Care plan need to be written

• Objectives for preparing care plan should be clear in the
instructor’s mind
• Simple short care plans on simulated or real patients situations.
• Objectives in Preparing Care Plans:
• 1. Will students be writing them as a means of learning the nursing
process
• 2. Planning for an assigned patient
• 3. Learning about a typical nursing diagnoses and related nursing care

• CONDUCTING THE CLASS

• The First Class
• 1.)Begin by introducing yourself
• 2.)At some point, tell the class a little about yourself( professional,
personal)
• 3.) You can establish a pleasant atmosphere by welcoming the class ,
reading names and getting correct pronunciations, making sure that
everyone gets the hands out.
• 4.) A little humor is helpful on the first day if it flows naturally
• 5.) The first session is the best time to communicate your
expectations for the courses
• 6.) Review the course syllabus or outline and take time to answer
questions about content, methods and assignments.
• 7.) Give a class the general idea of the work load and your
expectations in terms of preparation for class and in terms of
learning outcomes.
• 8.) Cover general classroom rules
• SUBSEQUENT CLASSES:
• 1.) Begin by gaining and controlling the attention of the learners.
• 2.) You will need to assess the learners to determine their
backgrounds and how they already know about the content of the
course
• 3.) A course that has been well planned and that starts out well on
the first session is already on the first way to success.
• Assignment:
• You are responsible for selecting a medication computation workbook for
an RN refresher course you are going to teach.
• A friend has recommended a book for you, but you want to be sure that it
is the best book for your course. Which of the following factors might make
this book appropriate or inappropriate for your course, and why?
• a. it reviews basic math like addition, multiplication, and working with
fractions
• b. conversions between metric and apothecary system are included
• c. intravenous rate calculations are included
• d. dimensional analysis is used as an approach instead of the desired/have
method
• e. formulas are given for titrating drugs used in critical care units
• f. a computer disk with tutorials and sample quizzes is included with each
book.