Lesson 4: Water Pollution

and Management
Unusual Properties of Water

1. Density
The maximum density is at 4 °C which means temperature below and
above this point makes water buoyant.

2. Melting point (0 °C) and Boiling point (100 °C)

It has an unusual high difference in melting and boiling point, thus
remaining liquid mostly.
3. Specific heat
Specific heat of water is 4184 J/kg °C which is higher than any
known liquid. It is five times higher than any known heavy solids
like rocks and concrete. This property means that water heats
and cools slower than anything else. This helps moderate climate
near large bodies of water and it also serve as protecting life
from rapid thermal fluctuations.
4. Heat of vaporization
The heat of required to vaporize water is 2258 kJ/kg, one of the highest
of all liquid. The high heat of vaporization means that water vapor
stores an unusual large amount of energy, the energy that is released
when water vapor condenses. This property is important in distributing
heat from one place to another and is major factor affecting climate.
5. Water as a solvent
Water dissolves more substances than any other common
solvent. It serves as an effective medium in transporting
nutrients in tissues and organs in living things as well as
eliminating wastes. Water also transports dissolved
substances throughout the biosphere.
Importance of Water

• 75% of earth’s surface is water where 91.2% is seawater and 2.5% is

freshwater

• Water usage: 90 gallons of water/person/day

Major Issues in Water Resources Management
Freshwater
1. Water problems (water scarcity).
● Water scarcity is made worse by the destruction of natural
ecosystems that are vital for the replenishment of freshwater supplies.
● Water supplies are also falling due to the denudation of watersheds.
This situation is further complicated by human activities that are
severely degrading the quality of freshwater. Tons of organic substances
and toxic materials are discharged to water bodies that makes water
bodies polluted.
● The poor quality of water affects human health. The United
Nations points out that up to 2.3 billion people worldwide are
affected by water-related diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever,
malaria and dysentery.

2. Water demand growing rapidly

● Water demand nationwide is expected to grow from 43,000
million cubic meters per year in 2000 to 88,400 million cubic
meters per year by 2025.
3. Agriculture use dominates
● Agriculture accounts for 86% of water use, while industrial and
domestic use are limited to 7% each.
● In the agriculture sector, irrigation is the biggest water user,
accounting for 72.6% of total water. The fishery subsector accounts for
27% while livestock/poultry accounts for under 0.5%.
● The irrigation systems serve about 15 million hectares or 48% of the
irrigable areas that produce about 70% of all rice in the country.
4. Access to water supply
● 72% of all Filipinos are served by public water system with 68% in urban areas
and 75% in rural areas. However, service levels vary greatly.

5. Groundwater extraction rising

● The present production of groundwater in the Philippines is estimated at about
2518 MCM per year. Extraction of groundwater has no metering system in place
and no effective monitoring and about 20-60% withdraw water more than their
allowable levels. Increasing groundwater use and declining aquifer recharge rates
have led to saline intrusion and pollution of groundwater from domestic sewage,
factory wastes and agriculture chemicals.
6. Watershed management
Watershed comprise about 70% of the country’s total land area, covering
421 river basins of which 18 are considered major. The drainage areas of
these watersheds range from 5,000 to 2.5 million hectares. Many of the
major basins are now considered in critical condition due to
overexploitation and mismanagement. Their degradation has resulted in
accelerated erosion, surface runoff, siltation of dams and reservoirs, poor
water quality, flash flooding, prolonged drought and other imbalances in
the ecosystem. There are 119 watersheds covering 1.3 million hectares
that have been proclaimed as watershed reservations. However, most of
these watersheds are subject to various forms of cultivation and
settlement and are actually considered degraded.
Marine water

1. Poor condition of coral reefs

The Philippines has one of the largest coral reef areas in the world,
covering about 27,000 square kilometers. Nearly 1/3 of all fish species
live on the reefs, while others are dependent on them and on seagrass
beds at various stages of their life cycle. Almost 55% of fish consumed
in the country depends on coral reefs. It is estimated that 10-15% of
total marine fisheries production is contributed by coral reefs. Despite
their importance, the latest inventory shows that only 4.3% of the reefs
are in excellent condition.
2. Mangrove forest loss
Mangrove forests is estimated to be 5,000 square kilometers. The
Philippines lost most of its mangroves in the 1970 and 1980s mainly
due to land conversion (for fishponds and settlement) and to
indiscriminate cutting of firewood and construction. In the last 23
years, they have declined by as much as 57%.
3. Decline of seagrass beds
The country has the second highest seagrass diversity in the
world. The economic usefulness of a seagrass bed resides in
the fisheries it supports. Coral reefs with their associated
seagrasses potentially could supply more than 20% of the
fish catch. In the Philippines, seagrass loss amounted to
about 30-50% over the last 50 years.
4. Fisheries production
The 1996 data showed that the country is 13th top fish producing
country, contributing 1.8 million metric tons of fish or 1.9% of the total
worlds catch. Between 1989 to 1998 the Philippine fisheries industry
registered an average annual growth rate of 1.6% in terms of
production. During the same period, aquaculture and commercial
fisheries posted an average annual growth rate of 4.3% and 4 %,
respectively. Municipal fisheries on the other hand, declined drastically
from 1990 to 1996.
For the entire country, the total fish available per person per
year has actually declined by 19% from 36 kilograms per person
in 1990 to 29 kilograms per person in 1996. This decline is due
to population growth, increasing fishing pressure, destructive
fishing practices and unsustainable fisheries and aquaculture
development.
Water Quality
Water quality is the degree in which a water body meets the criteria
of its intended usage.

Parameters describing water quality

1. Physical parameters: color, temperature, solids, turbidity, oil
2. Chemical parameters: BOD, COD, DO, TOC, salinity, pH, heavy
metals, nutrients and pesticides
3. Biological parameters: coliform count, fecal coliforms, and specific
pathogens and viruses.
Classification of Fresh Surface Waters

Class Beneficial Use

AA Public water supply 1. Water having watersheds which
are uninhabited or protected which require only
approved disinfection in water to meet the National
Standard for Drinking Water.
A Public water supply 2. Sources of water supply that will
require complete treatment (coagulation, filtration,
sedimentation and disinfection) in order to meets NSDW.
B Recreational water supply 1. Water for primary contact
recreation such bathing, swimming, skin diving.
C 1.Fishery water for the propagation and growth of
fish and other aquatic resources
2. Recreational water supply 2 like boating
3. Industrial water supply 1 for manufacturing
processes after treatment

D 1. For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering

2. Industrial water supply class 2 for cooling
Classification of Coastal and Marine Waters

Class Beneficial use

SA 1. Water suitable for the propagation, survival and
harvesting of shell fish for commercial purposes.
2. Tourist zones and national marine parks and
reserves established under PD 1801 or declared as
such by the appropriate government agency.
3. Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law
and concerned authorities.
SB 1. Recreational water class 1. Areas used for bathing,
swimming, skin diving, etc.
2. Fishery water class 1. Spawning area for chanos-
chanos or bangus and similar species.
SC 1. Recreational water class 2 for boating
2. Fishery water class 2 for commercial and
sustenance fishing
3. Marshes and/or mangrove area declared as
fish and wildlife sanctuaries.

SD 1. Industrial water supply class 2 for cooling

2. Other coastal and marine waters by their
quality belongs to this classification
Water Quality Criteria for Class C (freshwater)

Parameter Unit Criteria Value

Color PCU 50
Temperature °C 3 max rise
Turbidity (secchi depth) m 1
Total solids mg/L 2,000
Oil and grease mg/L 2
pH 6.5-8.5
DO mg/L 5
BOD mg/L 10
Phosphate as phosphorus mg/L 0.4
Nitrogen as nitrate mg/L 10
Total coliform MPN/100 mL 5,000
Copper (dissolved) mg/L 0.05
Arsenic mg/L 0.05
Cadmium mg/L 0.01
Chromium (hexavalent) mg/L 0.05
Cyanide mg/L 0.05
Lead mg/L 0.05
Pollution of Water Resources

Water pollution is the introduction of materials/energy to the water

environment and that causes harm to living organisms and humans.
General Types of Pollutants
1. Organic pollutants: PCB, pesticides, petroleum wastes,
biodegradable organic matter
2. Inorganic pollutants: heavy metals, algal nutrients, CO2,
NH2, H2S
3. Sewage/human and animal wastes: biodegradable organic
wastes, pathogens, detergents, refractory organics, heavy
metals, oil and grease
4. Sediments
Biodegradable Organic Wastes (oxygen demanding wastes)

Measures of oxygen demand

1. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): the amount of oxygen
needed to chemically oxidize the wastes
2. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): the amount of oxygen
required by microorganisms to aerobically degrade the organic
wastes.
BOD (aerobic decomposition)

Organic matter + O2-------------- CO2 + H2O + new cells + stable products

When O2 becomes deficient anaerobic decomposition occurs and this is carried

out by another set of microorganisms. They produce end products that are
highly objectionable like H2S (rotten egg), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4).

BOD (anaerobic decomposition)

Organic matter ------------- CO2 + CH4 + new cells + unstable products

Pathogens

Pathogens are disease producing organisms that

grow and multiply within the hosts. Examples:
bacteria for cholera, bacillary dysentery and typhoid
fever; viruses responsible for infectious hepatitis and
poliomyelitis. Carriers may not even know or may not
exhibit symptoms of their disease, this makes it
important to protect the water supplies from any
human contamination.
Contaminated water causes poor sanitation and can
lead to waterborne and water contact diseases.
Waterborne diseases are those acquired by ingestion of
pathogens not only in drinking water but also from
water that makes it into a person’s mouth from washing
foods, utensils and hands. Water contact diseases do
not require ingestion the water like schistosomiasis.

Water also plays indirect role in other diseases, it could

be a breeding ground of insects like mosquitos
responsible for malaria.
Nutrients
● Nutrients are chemicals like nitrogen, phosphorus,
carbon, sulfur, calcium, potassium, iron, manganese,
boron, and cobalt. These are essential for the growth
of living things.
● Nutrient enrichment can lead to algal blooms. This
process of nutrient enrichment is called eutrophication.
● The consequences of eutrophication are: reducing
dissolve oxygen, turbidity. Sedimentation, less
penetration of sunlight.
● Nitrogen can also cause the disease known as
methemoglobinemia.
● Nitrogen in water is in a form of NO3 which is not
dangerous but a certain bacteria found in infant’s
intestine that converts NO3 to NO2. NO2 is highly toxic
and has greater affinity to hemoglobin and so it
replaces oxygen in the blood, this condition is known as
methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome).
Pesticides

● Pesticide is used to cover a range of chemicals that kill

organisms that humans consider undesirable that
includes: insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides and
fungicides.
● Pesticides are accumulated in fatty tissue of organisms
at successively higher concentration. This phenomenon
in which the concentration of a chemical increases at
higher levels in the food chain is known as
biomagnification or bioconcentration.
Heavy Metals
● Metal is characterized by high thermal and electrical
conductivity, high reflectivity, metal luster, strength and
ductility.
● Heavy metals are metals having specific gravity
greater than 4 or 5, but more often the term means toxic
metals.
● Toxic metals include: aluminum, arsenic, beryllium,
bismuth, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead,
manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, strontium,
thallium, tin, titanium and zinc.
● Metals maybe inhaled or ingested. Some metals are
poorly absorbed and some completely absorbed.
● Metals have a range of adverse effects to the body
including nervous system and kidney damage, creation of
mutations and induction of tumors.
Volatile Organic Compounds
● Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are commonly
found contaminants in water. They are often used as
solvents in industrial plant.
● The 5 toxic VOC are: vinyl chloride
(chloroethylene), tetrachloroethylene,
trichloroethylene, 1,2 dichloroethane, and carbon
tetrachloride. VOC are suspected to be carcinogens
and mutagens.
Thermal Pollution
● As water temperature increases, 2 factors combine to
make it more difficult for aquatic life to get sufficient oxygen
to meet its needs:
● Metabolic rates tend to increase with temperature, this
causes an amount of oxygen required by organisms to
increase.
●The available supplies of dissolved oxygen are reduced
because waste assimilation is quicker, drawing down
dissolved oxygen at a faster rate.
● So, as temperature increase, the demand for oxygen
goes up while the amount of dissolve oxygen available goes
down.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
●5-day BOD (BOD5) is the total amount of oxygen
consumed by microorganisms during the 5 days of
biodegradation.
● Unseeded
BOD5 = (DOi –DOf) / P
where: DOi = is the initial dissolved oxygen of the diluted
wastewater
DOf = the final dissolved oxygen of the diluted water
P = the dilution fraction (volume of wastewater/
volume of waste water + dilution water)
Example: Unseeded 5-day BOD test

A 10 mL sample of sewage mixed with enough water to

fill a 300 mL bottle has an initial DO of 9 mg/L. To help
assure an accurate test, it is desirable to have at least 2
mg/L drop in DO during the 5-day run, and the final DO
should be at least 2 mg/L. For what range of BOD5 would
this dilution produce the desired results?
Given: DOi = 9 mg/L Vsample = 10 mL
DOf = 2 mg/L Vsample+dilution water= 300 mL
* At least 2mg/L drop of DO

Solution: BOD5 = (DOi –DOf) / P

▪ at least 2 mg/L drop in DO

BOD5 = 2 mg/L / (10mL/300 mL)
BOD5 = 60 mg/L
▪ to assure at least 2 mg/l of DO remaining after 5 days

BOD5 = (9 mg/L – 2 mg/L )/ (10 mL/300mL)

BOD5 = 210 mg/L
● Seeded
BODmVm = BODwVw + BODd Vd

where: BODm = BOD of the mixture of wastewater and

seeded dilution water
BODw = BOD of the wastewater alone
BODd = BOD of the seeded dilution water alone
Vw = volume of wastewater in the mixture
Vd = volume of dilution water in the mixture
Vm= volume of the mixture = Vd + Vw
● final expression of BOD of the water

(DOi−DOf)−(Bi−Bf) (1−P)
BODw=
P

Where: Bi = initial DO in the seeded dilution water

Bf = final DO in the seeded dilution water
Example: Seeded BOD test
A test bottle containing just seeded dilution water has its DO
level drop by 1 mg/L in a 5-day test. A 300 mL bottle filled
with 15 mL of wastewater and the rest seeded dilution water
(sometimes expressed as a dilution of 1:20) experiences a
drop of 7.2 mg/L in the same time period. What would be
the 5-day BOD of the waste?
Given: DOi-DOf = 7.2 mg/L Vw=15 mL
Bi – Bf = 1 mg/L Vm = 300 mL

(DOi−DOf)−(Bi−Bf) (1−P)
Solution: BODw= P
BODw = 7.2 mg/L – 1.0 mg/L(1-0.05) / 0.05
BODw = 125 mg/L
Effect of Oxygen Demanding Wastes in Rivers

Factors affecting the amount of DO in rivers:

● Oxygen demanding wastes
● Plants (adds DO during the day; removes DO at night)
● Respiration of benthic organisms
● Tributaries draining into the rivers
● Rising temperatures (reduces the solubility of oxygen)
● Low flow rates (reduce the rate at which oxygen enters
the water from atmosphere)
Simplest model of oxygen resources in the river is focused
on 2 processes:
1. Removal of oxygen by microorganisms during
biodegradation
(deoxygenation)
2. Replenishment of oxygen at the surface of the river
(reaeration)
Deoxygenation
● The rate of deoxygenation at any point in the river is
assumed to be proportional to the BOD remaining at that
point.
Rate of deoxygenation = kdLt

where: kd =deoxygenation rate constant (day-1)

Lt = BOD remaining t (days) after the wastes enter
the river (mg/L)
● The deoxygenation rate constant is assumed to be same
as the BOD rate constant (k)
• Assuming a first-order reaction and Lt represent the BOD
left after time t
dLt/dt = -kLt
Lt = L0 e-kt

Rate of deoxygenation = kd L0e-kdt

 Qw
Lw
Qr L0 Lt
Lr
Distance

L0 = (QwLw + Qr Lr) / (Qw + Qr)

where:
L0 = initial BOD of streamwater and wastewater (mg/L)
Lr = BOD of the river just upstream of the point of discharged (mg/L)
Lw = BOD of the wastewater (mg/L)
Qr = volumetric flowrate of the river upstream of the point of
discharged (m3/s)
Qw = volumetric flowrate of wastewater (m3/s)
Example: Downstream BOD
A municipal wastewater treatment plant serving a city
discharges 1.10 m3/s of treated effluent having an ultimate BOD
of 50 mg/L into a stream that has a flow of 8.70 m3/s and a BOD
of its own equal to 6 mg/L. The deoxygenation constant is kd is
0.20/day.
a. Assuming complete mixing, estimate the ultimate BOD of the
river just downstream from the outfall.
b. If the stream has constant cross section so that it flows at a
fixed speed equal to 0.30 m/s, estimate the BOD of the
stream at a distance 30,000 m downstream.
 Qw = 1.10 m3/s
Lw = 50 mg/L
Qr =8.70 m3/s L0 =? Lt =?
Lr = 6 mg/L
Distance = 30,000 m

Answers:
a. 10.9 mg/L
b. 8.7 mg/L
Reaeration
●The rate at which oxygen is replenished is assumed to be
proportional to the difference between the actual DO in the
river at any given location and the saturated value of
dissolved oxygen.
Rate of reaeration = krD
where:
kr= reaeration constant (time-1)
D= dissolved oxygen deficit= (DOs – DO)
DOs = saturated value of dissolved oxygen
DO = actual dissolved oxygen at a given location in the river
● The reaeration constant kr is very much dependent on the
particular conditions of the river. Fast moving shallow
stream have much higher reaeration constant than a
sluggish stream or a pond.

kr = 3.9 u1/2 / H3/2

where:
kr = reaeration coefficient at 20°C (day-1)
u = average stream velocity (m/s)
H= average stream depth (m)
Typical reaeration constants for various water bodies

Water body Range of kr at 20°C (day-1)

1. Small ponds and backwaters 0.10-0.23
2. Sluggish streams and large lakes 0.23-0.35
3. Large streams of low velocity 0.35-0.46
4. Large streams of normal velocity 0.46-0.69
5. Swift streams 0.69- 1.15
6. Rapids and waterfalls >1.15
● With temperatures other than 20°C, the reaeration
constant kr can be adjusted using the following formula:

k=k20 θ(T-20)
where:
k = reaction rate constant at a different temperature
K20 = reaction rate constant at a standard 20°C
T = different temperature (°C)
θ = temperature coefficient that is temperature
dependent (commonly used value is 1.047)
Example:
At 20°C, the 5-day BOD of wastewater is 200 mg/L and the
reaction rate constant is 0.22/day. What would be the
reaction rate constant at 25°C using the θ equal to 1.047.

k=k20 θ(T-20)

k = 0.22 (1.047)(25-20)

k = 0.277/day
• The saturated value of dissolved oxygen varies with temperature,
pressure and salinity.
Solubility of oxygen in water (mg/L) at 1 atm pressure
Temperature(°C) Chloride concentration in water (mg/L)
0 5,000 10,000 15,000
0 14.62 13.73 12.89 12.10
5 12.77 12.02 11.32 10.66
10 11.29 10.66 10.06 9.49
15 10.08 9.54 9.03 8.54
20 9.09 8.62 8.17 7.75
25 8.26 7.85 7.46 7.08
30 7.56 7.19 6.85 6.51
● Both the wastewater that is being discharged into a
stream, and the stream itself, are likely to have some
oxygen deficit. Assuming complete mixing of the two the
initial deficit of the polluted river can be calculated using a
weighted average based on their individual concentrations
of dissolved oxygen.
D0 = DOs - (QwDOw + QrDOr / Qw+Qr)

where:
D0 = initial oxygen deficit of mixture of river and wastewater
DOs = saturated value of DO in water at the temperature of
the river
DOw = DO in the wastewater
DOr = DO in the river just upstream of the wastewater
discharged point
Example: Initial oxygen deficit
A wastewater has a dissolved oxygen concentration of 2
mg/L and a discharged rate of 1.1 m3/s. The river into which
it is being discharged has DO equal to 8.3 mg/L, a flow rate
of 8.70 m3/s and a temperature of 20°C. Assuming
complete mixing, estimate the initial DO deficit of the
mixture of wastewater and river water just downstream from
the discharged point.
Given: Qw = 1.1 m3/s Qr = 8.70 m3/s
DOw= 2 mg/L DOr = 8.3 mg/L
temperature of river= 20°C
Required: initial dissolved oxygen deficit of the mixture
(wastewater & river water)
Solution:
(1.1 m3/s* 2 mg/L) + (8.70 m3/s * 8.3 mg/L)
D0 = 9.09 mg/L -
(1.1 + 8.70)m3/s
D0 = 9.09 mg/L - 7.6 mg/L = 1.5 mg/L
Oxygen-Sag Curve
Th deoxygenation and reaeration are competing processes,
there is a simultaneous removing and adding of oxygen to a
stream. So, combining the deoxygenation and reaeration
equation:

Rate of increase of deficit = Rate of deoxygenation- Rate of

reaeration
dD/dt = kdL0e -kdt - krD

D = (kdL0/kr- kd )(e-kdt – e-krt ) + D0e-krt

For special cases where kr = kd
D = (kdL0t + D0) e-kdt

If the stream has a constant cross-sectional area, and it is

travelling at a speed u, then time and distance downstream
are related by
x = ut ; t = x/u

where: x = distance downstream

u = stream speed
t = elapsed time between
The oxygen deficit is given as

D = DOs-DO ; DO = D- DOs

where: D = oxygen deficit

DOs = saturated value of dissolved oxygen
DO = actual dissolved oxygen at a given location in the
river
 Pollution Velocity, u

X=0 ; t=0
Saturation DO (DOs)
Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Initial deficit, D0
Deficit (D)
Critical point

DO, minimum Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Xc or tc

Distance or time downstream

● As pollution is drop into the stream, the decomposition
process withdraws oxygen at a faster rate than reaeration
can replace it, causing a drop in DO.

● DO reaches a minimum at a particular location and time,

called the critical point. At the critical point, the rate of
deoxygenation equals the rate of reaeration. This is the
point where the stream conditions are at their worst.

● Beyond the critical point, reaeration exceeds

deoxygenation and the stream naturally recovers.
To solve for the critical time

tc = (1/kr- kd) ln kr / kd 1- D0(kr-kd) / kdL0

Example: Oxygen sag curve
Just below the point where a continuous discharge of pollution
mixes with a river, the BOD is 10.9 mg/L and DO is 7.6 mg/L. The
river water and waste mixture has a temperature of 20 °C, a
deoxygenation constant of 0.20/day, an average flow speed of
0.30 m/s, and an average depth of 3 m.
a. Find the time and distance downstream at which the oxygen
deficit is a maximum.
b. Find the minimum value of DO