ECE 1311

Chapter 4 – Circuit Theorems

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Outlines
 Linearity Property

 Superposition

 Source transformation

 Thevenin’s theorem

 Norton’s theorem

 Maximum power transfer

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Linearity Property
 Learn theorems/methods for analysing electric circuits.
 i.e. superposition, source transformation, thevenin and norton
– are applicable to linear circuits.

 Linearity property is a combination of both the

homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity
property.
 Homogeneity property:
 If the input is multiplied by a constant, then the output is multiplied by
the same constant.
 i.e. v  iR   kiR  kv

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Linearity Property
 Additivity property:
 Requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately.
 i.e. v1  i1 R and v 2  i2 R
then applying i  i1  i2
gives v  i1  i2 R  i1 R  i2 R  v1  v2

 A circuit is linear if it satisfies both the homogeneity

property and additivity property.

 A linear circuit consists of linear elements, linear

dependent sources and linear independent sources.

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Example 1
 For the circuit shown, find v0 when is=15 A and is=30 A.

Answers:
20V and 40V
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Example 2
 Assume that V0 =1 V and use the linearity to calculate the
actual value of V0 in the circuit shown.

Answer:
12 V
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Superposition
 Another method for analysing circuits.

 Superposition principle states that:

 The voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each independent source acting
alone.

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Steps to Apply Superposition
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
 Turn off VOLTAGE source by replacing the element with a SHORT
circuit.
 Turn off CURRENT source by replacing the element with a OPEN
circuit.
2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source.
3. Repeat Step 1 and Step 2 for each of the other independent
sources.
4. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.

 Note: Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled
by circuit variables.

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Example 3
 Find v0 using superposition.

Answer:
6V
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Example 4
 Find vx using superposition.

Answer:
25V
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Example 5
 Find I using superposition.

Answer:
750mA
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Source Transformation
 Another method for simplifying electric circuits.
 What is it?
 The process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R
with a current source Is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.


 Note:
 The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal
of the voltage source.
 Source transformation is not possible when R=0 or R=infinity.

Independent sources Dependent sources

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Example 6
 Find I0 using source transformation.

Answer:
1.78A
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Example 7
 Find ix using source transformation.

Answer:
7.059mA
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Example 8
 Find vx using source transformation.

Answer:
3.65V
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Thevenin’s Theorem
 The theorem states that:
 A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor
RTh. VTh is the open circuit voltage at the terminals whereas RTh is the
input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
 To determine VTh, set terminals a-b to open circuit.
 To determine RTh, turn off all independent sources.

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Thevenin’s Theorem
 Two cases to consider for RTh:
 Case 1: No dependent sources in the network.
 Turn of all independent sources.
 RTh is the input resistance looking between terminal a-b.

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Example 9
 Determine Thevenin’s equivalent.

Answer:
VTh=9V
RTh=3Ω
I=2.25A
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Thevenin’s Theorem
 Case 2: A network with dependent sources.
 Turn off all INdependent sources.
 Apply a voltage source v0 at terminals a-b and determine the resulting
current i0. Then RTh= v0 / i0.
 Alternatively, insert a current i0 and determine v0.
 May assume any values of v0 and i0 (i.e. v0 =1V or i0=1A).

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Example 10
 Determine Thevenin’s equivalent.

Answer:
VTh=5.333V
RTh=444.4mΩ
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Example 11
 Determine Thevenin’s equivalent.

Answer:
VTh=0V
RTh=-7.5Ω
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Thevenin’s Theorem
 A linear circuit with a variable load can be replaced by
the Thevenin equivalent.

 Consider a linear circuit is terminated by a load RL, the

current through the load IL and the voltage across the
load VL can be determined as follows:

VTh
IL 
RTh  RL
RL
VL  RL I L  VTh
RTh  RL

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Norton’s Theorem
 The theorem states that:
 A linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN
 IN is the short circuit current through the terminals.
 RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

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Norton’s Theorem
 To determine IN, set the terminal a-b to short circuit. Thus:
 IN=isc

 Dependent and independent sources are treated the same way

as in Thevenin’s Theorem.
R N  RTh
VTh
IN 
RTh
.

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Example 12
 Determine Norton’s equivalent.

Answer:
IN=4.5A
RN=3Ω
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Example 13
 Determine Norton’s equivalent.

Answer:
IN=10A
RN=1Ω
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Maximum Power Transfer
 Thevenin’s equivalent is useful in finding the maximum
power in a linear circuit.

 If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin

equivalent except for the load, the power delivered
to the load is:

2
 VTh 
P  i RL  
2
 RL
 RTh  RL 

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Maximum Power Transfer
 For a given circuit, VTh and RTh are fixed.
 The power delivered can be varied by varying RL.
 Power is maximum when RL = RTh.

when RL  RTh
2
 VTh 
p max    RTh
 RTh  RTh 
2
V
p max  Th
4 RTh

The power transfer profile with different RL

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Example 14
 The variable resistor R is adjusted until it absorbs the
maximum power from the circuit below.
 Calculate the value of R for maximum power.
 Determine the maximum power absorbed by R.

Answer:
R=25Ω
P=7.84W
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