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Map Measurement and Transformation: Longley Et Al., Ch. 13

Spatial analysis involves methods for working with spatial data to detect patterns, anomalies, and answer questions. It transforms raw data into useful information through techniques like measurements, transformations, descriptive summaries, and hypothesis testing. Key objectives include queries, measurements of geographic aspects, transforming data formats, and summarizing essential characteristics. Early examples include John Snow mapping cholera cases in London to identify the contaminated water pump responsible for spreading the disease.

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62 views40 pages

Map Measurement and Transformation: Longley Et Al., Ch. 13

Spatial analysis involves methods for working with spatial data to detect patterns, anomalies, and answer questions. It transforms raw data into useful information through techniques like measurements, transformations, descriptive summaries, and hypothesis testing. Key objectives include queries, measurements of geographic aspects, transforming data formats, and summarizing essential characteristics. Early examples include John Snow mapping cholera cases in London to identify the contaminated water pump responsible for spreading the disease.

Uploaded by

Emmanuel Abeashie Mensah
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Map Measurement and

Transformation

Longley et al., ch. 13


What is spatial analysis?
• Methods for working with spatial data
– to detect patterns, anomalies
– to find answers to questions
– to test or confirm theories
• deductive reasoning
– to generate new theories and generalizations
• inductive reasoning
• "a set of methods whose results change
when the locations of the objects being
analyzed change"
What is Spatial Analysis (cont.)
• Methods for adding value to data
– in doing scientific research
– in trying to convince others
• Turning raw data into useful information
• A collaboration between human and
machine
– Human directs, makes interpretations and
inferences
– Machine does tedious, complex stuff
Early Spatial Analysis
• John Snow, 1854
• Cholera via polluted water, not air
• Broad Street Pump
John Snow’s Map
Updating Snow:
Openshaw 1965-’98
• Geographic Analysis
Machine
• Search datasets for
event clusters
– cases: pop at risk
• Geographical
correlates for:
– Cancer
– Floods
– Nuclear attack
– Crime
Objectives of Spatial Analysis
• Queries and reasoning
• Measurements
– Aspects of geographic data, length, area, etc.
• Transformations
– New data, raster to vector, geometric rules
• Descriptive summaries
– Essence of data in a few parameters
• Optimization - ideal locations, routes
• Hypothesis testing – from a sample to entire
population
Answering Queries
• A GIS can present several distinct views
• Each view can be used to answer simple
queries
– ArcCatalog
– ArcMap
Views to Help w/Queries
• hierarchy of devices, folders, datasets, files
• Map, table, metadata
Views to Help w/Queries
• ArcMap - map view
•
Views to Help w/Queries
ArcMap - table view linked to map
•
Views to Help w/Queries
ArcMap - histogram and scatterplot views
Exploratory Data Analysis ( EDA )
• Interactive methods to explore spatial data
• Use of linked views
• Finding anomalies, outliers
• In images, finding particular features
• Data mining large masses of data
– e.g., credit card companies
– anomalous behavior in space and time
SQL in EDA
• Structured or Standard query language
• SELECT FROM counties WHERE median value > 100,000

Result is HIGHLIGHTed
Spatial Reasoning with GIS
• GIS would be easier to use if it could "think"
and "talk" more like humans
– or if there could be smooth transitions between
our vague world and its precise world
– Google Maps
• In our vague world, terms like “near”, far”,
“south of”, etc. are context-specific
– From Santa Barbara: LA is far from SB
– From London: LA is right next to SB
Measurement with GIS
• Often difficult to make by hand from maps
– measuring the length of a complex feature
– measuring area
– how did we measure area before GIS?
• Distance and length
– calculation from metric coordinates
– straight-line distance on a plane
Measuring the length of a feature

vs.
Distance
• Simplest distance calculation in GIS

• d = sqrt [(x1-x2)2+(y1-y2)2 ]
• But does it work for latitude and longitude?
Spherical (not spheroidal) geometry
• Note: a and b are distinct from A (alpha) and B (beta).
• 1. Find distances a and b in degrees from the pole P.
• 2. Find angle P by arithmetic comparison of longitudes.
– (If angle P is greater than 180 degrees subtract angle P from 360
degrees.)
– Subtract result from 180 degrees to find angle y.
– 3. Solve for 1/2 ( a - b ) and 1/2 ( a + b ) as follows:
tan 1/2 ( a - b ) = - { [ sin 1/2 ( a - b ) ] / [ sin 1/2 ( a + b ) ] } tan 1/2 y
tan 1/2 ( a + b ) = - { [ cos 1/2 ( a - b ) ] / [ cos 1/2 ( a + b ) ] } tan 1/2 y
• 4. Find c as follows:
– tan 1/2 c = { [ sin 1/2 ( a + b ) ] x [ tan 1/2 ( a - b ) ] } / sin 1/2 ( a - b )
• 5. Find angles A and B as follows:
– A = 180 - [ ( 1/2 a + b ) + ( 1/2 a - b ) ]
– B = 180 - [ ( 1/2 a + b ) - ( 1/2 a - b ) ]
Distance
• GIS usually uses spherical calculations
• From (lat1,long1) to (lat2,long2)
• R is the radius of the Earth
d = R cos-1 [sin lat1 sin lat2 + cos lat1 cos lat2 cos (long1 - long2)]
What R to use?
• Quadratic mean radius
– best approximation of Earth's average transverse meridional arcradius
and radius.
– Ellipsoid's average great ellipse.
– 6 372 795.48 m (≈3,959.871 mi; ≈3,441.034 nm).
• Authalic mean radius
– "equal area" mean radius
– 6 371 005.08 m (≈3,958.759 mi; ≈3,440.067 nm).
– Square root of the average (latitudinally cosine corrected) geometric
mean of the meridional and transverse equatorial (i.e., perpendicular),
arcradii of all surface points on the spheroid
• Volumic radius
– Less utilized, volumic radius
– radius of a sphere of equal volume:
– 6 370 998.69 m (≈3,958.755 mi; ≈3,440.064 nm).
• (Source Wikipedia)
Length
• add the lengths of polyline or polygon
segments
• Two types of distortions
(1) if segments are straight,
length will be
underestimated
in general
Length
• Two types of distortions
(2) line in 2-D GIS on a plane considerably
shorter than 3-D
Area of land parcel based on area of horiz.
projection, not true surface area
Area
• How do we measure area of a polygon?
• Proceed in clockwise direction around the
polygon
• For each segment:
– drop perpendiculars to the x axis
– this constructs a trapezium
– compute the area of the trapezium
– difference in x times average of y
– keep a cumulative sum of areas
Area (cont.)
• Green, orange, blue trapezia
• Areas = differences in x times averages of y
• Subtract 4th to get area of polygon
Area by formula

(x1,y1)= (x5,y5)

(x4,y4) (x2,y2)

(x3,y3)
Applying the Algorithm to a Coverage

• For each polygon


• For each arc:
– proceed segment by segment from
FNODE to TNODE
– add trapezia areas to R polygon area
– subtract from L polygon area
• On completing all arcs, totals
are correct area
Algorithm
• Area of poly - a “numerical recipe”
• a set of rules executed in sequence
to solve a problem

– “islands” must all be


scanned clockwise
– “holes” must be scanned
anticlockwise
– holes have negative
area
– Polygons can have
outliers
Shape
• How can we measure the shape of an area?
• Compact shapes have a small perimeter for a
given area (P/A)
• Compare perimeter to the perimeter of a circle of
the same area [A = P R2
• So R = sqrt(A/ P )
• shape = perimeter / sqrt (A/ P)
• Many other measures
What Use are Shape
Measures?
• “Gerrymandering”
– creating oddly shaped districts to manipulate
the vote
– named for Elbridge Gerry, governer of MA and
signatory of the Declaration of Independence
– today GIS is used to design districts

After 1990 Census


Example: Landscape Metrics
Slope and Aspect
• measured from an elevation or bathymetry
raster
– compare elevations of points in a 3x3 (Moore)
neighborhood
– slope and aspect at one point estimated from
elevations of it and surrounding 8 points
• number points row by row, from top left from 1 to 9

1 2 3
4 5 6

7 8 9
Slope and Aspect
Slope Calculation
• b = (z3 + 2z6 + z9 - z1 - 2z4 - z7) / 8r
• c = (z1 + 2z2 + z3 - z7 - 2z8 - z9) / 8r
– b denotes slope in the x direction
– c denotes slope in the y direction
– r is the spacing of points (30 m)
• find the slope that fits best to the 9 elevations
• minimizes the total of squared differences
between point elevation and the fitted slope
• weighting four closer neighbors higher
• tan (slope) = sqrt (b2 + c2)
Slope Definitions
• Slope defined as an angle
• … or rise over horizontal run
• … or rise over actual run
• Or in percent
• various methods
– important to know how your favorite GIS
calculates slope
– Different algorithms create different
slopes/aspects
Slope Definitions (cont.)
Aspect
• tan (aspect) = b/c
• Angle between vertical and direction of
steepest slope
• Measured clockwise
• Add 180 to aspect if c is positive, 360 to
aspect if c is negative and b is positive
Transformations
• Buffering (Point, Line, Area)
• Point-in-polygon
• Polygon Overlay
• Spatial Interpolation
– Theissen polygons
– Inverse-distance weighting
– Kriging
– Density estimation
Basic Approach

Map New map

Transformation
Example

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