ROCKET PROPULSION

•Propellant Properties (7.1)

 PROPELLANT PROPERTIES
• The difference is important between properties of liquid
propellants.The chemical nature of liquid propellants and
their weight ratio in compound determine characteristics of
resulting compound.

Which factors will be effective to selection of Prpoellant?

Economic Factors
• How much we have over the World is directly affects a low cost that
very important considerations in propellant selection.Toxic or
cryogenic propellants is expensive to use than storable, nontoxic
ones, because of more equipment need to isolate from environment.

Performance of Propellants
• The performance rocket engines may be compared on the basis of
their specific impulse, exhaust velocity, characteristic velocity, and
other engine parameters.The values of performance parameters for
different propellants can be calculated and comparing betweeen
them.What kind of mission we want,we will have options to selection.
No matter what is selected that the disadvantage will always be!
Common Hazards
Corrosion;
• Some propellants, such as nitrogen tetroxide, nitric acid, nitric oxide
and hydrogen peroxide should be handled containers and pipelines
made from special materials because of reaction can happen in
applications and high risk to damage launch or ground test structures
and parts of the vehicle.
Explosion Hazard;
• By the time some propellants can become unstable in their storage
tanks and may even detonate under certain conditions.When liquid
oxidizers and fuels get together with a result of something,detonation
will be inevitable.
Accidental Spills(döküntü);
• Unexpected cases happening when engine operation or traffic accidents on
highways or railroads while transporting hazardous materials.So as a result
that spills metarials will be dangerous around way.
Health Hazards;
• Exposure with propellant represents a health hazard. Toxic unburned
chemicals or poisonous exhaust species affect the humanbody with a
different way.Nitric acid causes severe skin burns. When aniline contact
with skin may cause nausea(mide bulantısı).
Toxic Propellants;
> ASME (THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS)
• There are special safety rules to transport of toxic propellant and also
some equipment there are to detect toxic in vapor or water.
• For personnel protection, face shields and gas masks special gloves and
boots, sealed communications equipments uses and medical tests are
performed routinely over people who involves in this work.
Materials Compatibility;
• The usege of unsuitable materials in rocket engines can cause many
failures.
For example, fire, corrosion, leakage. Therefore, the structural
materials used must be resistant to high temperatures, stresses or
corrosion.

Desirable Physical Properties

Low Freezing Point;
• This allows the operation of the rocket in cold environmental
conditions.

In this way, the solidify of some liquid fuels in the environmental

conditions is prevented and the possibility of storage of fuel is provided.
High Specific Gravity;
• Intensive fuels provide;
- A larger propellant mass
- Smaller tank volumes
And so, lower structural mass and lower aerodynamic drag.
The specific gravity of a propellant, has an important effect on the
maximum flight velocity and range of any rocket powered vehicle or
missile flying within the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Average specific gravity of any propellant (𝜹𝒂𝒗 )

𝜹𝒐 𝜹𝒇 (𝟏 + 𝒓)
𝜹𝒂𝒗 =
𝑟𝜹𝒇 + 𝜹𝒐
• r: Propellant mixture ratio
• 𝜹𝒇 : Specific gravities of the fuel
• 𝜹𝒐 : Specific gravities of the oxidizer

• Same equation can be written for the average density (𝝆𝒂𝒗 ) in terms of the fuel and
oxidizer densities.
𝝆𝒐 𝝆𝒇 (𝟏 + 𝒓)
𝝆𝒂𝒗 =
𝑟𝝆𝒇 + 𝝆𝒐
• Density Specific Impulse (𝑰𝒅 )
𝑰𝒅 = 𝜹𝒂𝒗 𝑰𝒔
• A propellant density increase provide;
- Increases in total propellant mass
- Increases in mass flow
- All other system parameters remain same.
- The system mass flow rate and the total mass increase by
approximately the same amount. These changes enable increases in
chamber pressure, total impulse, and thrust.
• Stability
- Stability means no deterioration of the liquid propellant during
operation or storage, even at increasing temperatures.
- A desirable liquid propellant should also experience no chemical
deterioration.
• Heat Transfer Properties
This is important for thrust chamber cooling.
High specific heat provides;
- Low freezing temperature
- High boiling temperature
- High deterioration temperature
- High thermal conductivity
• Pumping Properties
- Propellants with low vapor pressures allow;
- Making more effective pump designs
- Easier usage of propellants
- Propellants with vapor high pressures (such as liquid hydrogen, and
other liquefied gases) require special designs, different usage
techniques.
• Temperature Variation of Physical Properties
The temperature change of any liquid fuel should be very small.
If the difference of change rises, it difficult to accurately calibrate
rocket engine flow systems.

• Spontaneously ignitable burning

Burning is initiated as soon as the fuel and the oxidizer come in
contact with each other.
Called hypergolic propellants.
• Nonspontaneously ignitable propellants
- Be energized by external means for ignition to begin.
- The amount of energy needed from the igniter to activate the
propellants should be small so that low power.
- Light weight ignition systems may be used.
• Property Variations and Specifications
-Propellants are taked to proper to strict specifications.
What are these specifications?
- Packing methods, compatible materials, maximum allowable
impurities, allowable tolerance for physical properties, such as boiling
point, density, freezing point, viscosity, or vapor pressure and a careful
chemical analyses of impurities are need.
*LIQUID OXIDIZERS (7.2)
*LIQUID FUELS (7.3)
 Liquid Oxidizers
• In a liquid propellant rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are stored in
separate tanks, and are fed through a system of pipes, valves, and
turbopumps to a combustion chamber where they are combined
and burned to produce thrust.

• When we check oxidizers that elemental flourine is the best

known oxidizer as a powerful compare to others. This experience
depend on some experimental rocket engines but stopped
because of it is extremely reactive, as it reacts with almost all
other elements, except for He and Ne.

• Many different types of storable liquid oxidizers have been

producted, tested in small thrust chambers.These included
combined of liquid O2 and liquid F
 Most commonly oxidizers given at below with a
short explaination;
Liquid Oxygen (O2) (LOX)
• Oxygen is a strong oxidizer.Oxygen will react with nearly all organic
materials and metals, usually produce oxide over Meterials.
• Liquid oxygen is a noncorrosive and nontoxic liquid that will not cause the
hazard of clean container walls.
• Liquid oxygen is a cryogenic(low-temperature production) liquid. Cryogenic
liquids is that making liquid gases at point below –130°F (–90°C).
• This is so important in case of the temperature difference between the
product and the surrounding environment like a space condition.The stored
liquid oxygen isolated from around heat transfer.
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
• The hydrogen peroxide is widely used for very good properties.
Indeed H2O2 is safe, effective, powerful oxidant.Hydrogen peroxide is
more powerful than chlorine or chlorine dioxide for instance.
• Furthermore through catalysis, hydrogen peroxide can also
transformed into hydroxyl which is the strongest oxidant after
fluorine. Hydrogen peroxide was used in gas generators and rocket
applications between 1938 and 1965.
• Here are several advantages in using H2O2:
-Powerful - Safe - Versatile(transforming) - Widely Used
• As a monopropellant it has been used to control thrusters in the
Soyuz space capsule and driving by help restart-start option. It was
not used in the United States for some time, partly because it was
hard to predict its long-term storage stability.
Nitric Acid (HNO3)
• In the World War II Wasserfall rocket, nitric acid (HNO3) became the early
storable oxidizer for missiles and upper stages of the 1950's. To overcome
various problems with its use, it was necessary to combine the nitric acid
with N2O4(dinitrojen tetroksit) and passivation(paslanmaya karşı önlem
amaçlı) compounds.
• By the late 1950's it was apparent that N2O4 by itself was a better oxidizer.
Therefore nitric acid was almost entirely replaced by pure N2O4 in storable
liquid fuel rocket engines developed after 1960.
• RFNA(Red fuming nitric acid )consists of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) (is
about %83) that contains between 5 and 27% dissolved nitrogen dioxide
(NO2).
• It is more energetic,more stable in storage, and slightly less corrosive to
many tank materials.Nitric acid reacts with gasoline, various amines,
hydrazine, dimethylhydrazine, and alcohols.
Nitrogen Tetroxide (N2O4) (NTO)
• In Space Indistury called Dinitrogen tetroxide, commonly referred to
as nitrogen tetroxide, is the chemical compound. N2O4. It is a
useful reagent in chemical synthesis. It forms an equilibirium
mixture with nitrogen dioxide.
Reagent;A compound which is capable of reacting with a particular
compound, thus determining the variety, or even the amount, of that
compound.
• Dinitrogen tetroxide is a powerful oxidizer that is hypergolic(whatever T,P
,It will fire) upon contact with various forms of hydrazine(n2h4), which has
made the pair a common bipropellant for rockets.It is the most common
storable oxidizer employed today.
• When it decomposes, the resulting NO2 fumes are reddish Brown and
extremely toxic. Because of its high vapor pressure, it must be kept sealed
in relatively heavy tanks.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
• Nitrous oxide is introduced as a multi-purpose propellant for
spacecraft. There are some potential space applications of this
propellant.
• Based on comparison to conventional systems, a multi-mode nitrous
oxide propulsion concept is expected to deliver higher performance.
• A nitrous oxide catalytic decomposition technique is suggested for
restartable spacecraft propulsion.
• Up-to-date experimental results are presented. A conclusion
describes the long-term feasibility(applicable) of new nitrous oxide
propulsion option concepts.
 LIQUID FUELS
- What is the advantage and disadvantage of using liquid fuels?
• The usage of liquid fuels is easier and they require less storage place,
thanks to they also must take the shape of their container.
• The solid fuels have higher percentage of moisture and hence they burn
with great difficulty.
• The waste product of solid fuels is a large quantity of ash and removal
becomes a problem. However, liquid fuels leave no or very little ash after
burning.
• The firing of liquid fuels can be easily controlled. This permits to meet the
variation in load demand easily.
• Physical properties of liquid fuels vary by temperature, though not as great
as for gaseous fuels.
• These properties affect the safety and usage of the fuel.
• Most liquid fuels in widespread use are derived from fossil fuels. The most
notable of these is gasoline.
Table 1: Theoretical Performance of Liquid Rocket Propellant
Combinations
 Hydrocarbon Fuels
• Most hydrocarbon chemicals are derived from petroleum. And some of them can
be used a rocket fuel.
• The most common are types in use with other engines applications, such as
gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, and turbojet fuel.
• RP-1 has been used with liquid oxygen in the Thor, Delta, Atlas, Saturn and Titan I
rocket engines
• Kerosene-like mixture of satured and unsaturated hydrocarbons with a somewhat
narrow range of densities an vapor pressure.
• Liquid methane is abundant and relatively low in cost. Compared to petroleum-
refined hydrocarbons, it has highly reproducible properties.
• Liquid methane is used as a rocket fuel when combined with liquid oxygen, as in
the BE-4 and Raptor engines.
• Since the density of liquid methane is approximately six times higher than
liquid hydrogen, methane fuel tanks can be much smaller and less costly.
• Methane is being considered as a bipropellant fuel for future rocket engines.
 Liquid Hydrogen
• Liquid hydrogen is manufactured from gaseous hydrogen by successive
compression, cooling, and expansion processes, and hydrogen is found naturally
in the molecular H2 form.
• Of all known fuels, liquid hydrogen is by far the lightest and the coldest, having
a specific gravity of 0.07 and a boiling point of about 20 K.
• Because of their very low temperatures, liquid hydrogen tanks and supply lines
have to be well insulated to minimize hydrogen evaporation or the
condensation of moisture or air on the outside.
• The liquid density is very low compared to other common fuels
• Liquid hydrogen also has a much higher specific energy than gasoline, natural
gas, or diesel.
• Hydrogen when burned with oxygen gives a high performance colorless flame.
• This propellant combination has been applied successfully to space launch
vehicles because of its high specific impulse (payload capability usually
increases greatly for relatively small in creases in specific impulse) even if the
low density of liquid hydrogen makes for a very bulky fuel tank, a large vehicle,
and relatively higher drag.
 Hydrazine (N2H4)
• Hydrazine, monomethylhydrazine (MMH), and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine
(UDMH) have similar physical and thermochemical properties.
• Hydrazine is a toxic, colorless liquid with a high freezing point (275.16 K or 35.6
∘F). Therefore, Hydrazine tanks, pipes, injectors, catalysts, and valves are usually
electrically heated to prevent freezing in cool ground weather or in outer space.
• Hydrazine has a short ignition time and is spontaneously ignitable with nitric acid,
nitrogen tetroxide, and concentrated hydrogen peroxide.
• Pure anhydrous hydrazine is a stable liquid; it has been safely heated to near
416K.
• It has been stored in sealed tanks for over 15 years. Space probes with
monopropellant hydrazine have been operating for about 40 years while
traveling beyond the boundary of the solar system.
• Hydrazine cannot be safely used in cooling jackets of bipropellant thrust
chambers because it will explode when a certain detonation temperature is
exceeded.
• Harmful effects to personnel may result from ingestion, inhalation of its toxic
vapors, or prolonged contact with skin.
 Unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine [(CH3)2NNH2]
• UDMH is often used in hypergolic rocket fuels as a bipropellant in
combination with the oxidizer nitrogen tetroxide and less frequently with
IRFNA (red fuming nitric acid) or liquid oxygen.
• UDMH has higher stability than hydrazine, especially at elevated
temperatures, and can be used as its replacement or together in a mixture.
• When UDMH is burned with an oxidizer it gives only slightly lower values of
is than pure hydrazine. UDMH has been used when mixed with 30 to 50%
hydrazine or with 25% hydrazine hydrate.
• UDMH is stable and can be kept loaded in rocket fuel systems for long
periods, which makes it appealing for use in many liquid rocket engines,
despite its cost.
• UDMH is used in many European, Russian, Indian, and Chinese rocket
designs. The Russian Proton, Kosmos-3M, and the Chinese Long March 2F
are the most notable users of UDMH (which is referred to as "heptyl" by
Russian engineers).
 Monomethylhydrazine (CH3NHNH2)
• Monomethylhydrazine, abbreviated as MMH, is being used
extensively in U.S. spacecraft rocket engines, particularly in small
attitude control engines, usually with N2O4 as the oxidizer.
• It has a better shock resistance to blast waves and a better liquid
temperature range than pure hydrazine.
• Any materials compatible with hydrazine are also compatible with
MMH.
• MMH decomposes at 491 K, whereas pure hydrazine can explode at
369 K when subjected to certain pressure shocks.
• Like hydrazine, its vapors are easily ignited in air; flammability limits
are from 2.5 to 98% by volume at atmospheric sea-level pressure and
ambient temperature.
• Of all hydrazines, MMH vapor is the most toxic when inhaled.
 • Hasan ATİK 14960003
• Bilâl ÇAYA 14960005

Thank you for listening..