1) Stress is a force applied per unit area that induces strain or deformation in materials. Strain is the amount of deformation compared to the original size and shape.
2) Materials have different elastic moduli depending on the type of stress or strain. Young's modulus describes tensile elasticity. The bulk modulus describes volumetric elasticity under uniform compression. Shear modulus describes elasticity under shear stress.
3) Hooke's law states that strain is proportional to stress for elastic deformation. Beyond the elastic limit, permanent plastic deformation occurs until failure of the material.
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Elasticity and Seismic Waves
1) Stress is a force applied per unit area that induces strain or deformation in materials. Strain is the amount of deformation compared to the original size and shape.
2) Materials have different elastic moduli depending on the type of stress or strain. Young's modulus describes tensile elasticity. The bulk modulus describes volumetric elasticity under uniform compression. Shear modulus describes elasticity under shear stress.
3) Hooke's law states that strain is proportional to stress for elastic deformation. Beyond the elastic limit, permanent plastic deformation occurs until failure of the material.
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Elasticity and Seismic Waves
Stress and Strain
• Stress is defined as force per unit area. • Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its original size and shape. • When a force is applied to a material, it deforms: stress induces strain • The SI unit for stress is the Pascal (symbol Pa), which is equivalent to one Newton (force) per square meter (unit area), that is N/m2. In Imperial units, stress is measured in pound-force per square inch, which is abbreviated as psi. • Strains are dimensionless and are usually expressed as a decimal fraction or a percentage. • For some materials, disformation is reversible = elastic materials • Compression. Stress that acts to shorten an object. • Tension. Stress that acts to lengthen an object. • Normal Stress. Stress that acts perpendicular to a surface. Can be either compressional or tensional. • Shear Stress that acts parallel to a surface. It can cause one object to slide over another. It also tends to deform originally rectangular objects into parallelograms. The most general definition is that shear acts to change the angles in an object. • Hydrostatic Stress (usually compressional) that is uniform in all directions. Stress in the earth is nearly hydrostatic. The term for uniform stress in the earth is lithostatic. • Directed Stress. Stress that varies with direction. Stress under a stone slab is directed; there is a force in one direction but no counteracting forces perpendicular to it. • Longitudinal or Linear Strain. Strain that changes the length of a line without changing its direction. Can be either compressional or tensional. • Compression strain. Longitudinal strain that shortens an object. • Tension. Longitudinal strain that lengthens an object. • Shear Strain that changes the angles of an object. Shear causes lines to rotate. • Homogeneous Strain. Uniform strain. Straight lines in the original object remain straight. Parallel lines remain parallel. Circles deform to ellipses. Note that this definition rules out folding, since an originally straight layer has to remain straight. • Inhomogeneous Strain. How real geology behaves. Deformation varies from place to place. Lines may bend and do not necessarily remain parallel. Stress-strain relation • Strain is proportional to stress = Hooke’s law • Stress-strain relation: – Elastic domain: • Stress-strain relation is linear • Hooke’s law applies – Beyond elastic domain: • Initial shape not recovered when stress is removed • Plastic deformation • Eventually stress > strength of material => failure – Failure can occur within the elastic domain = brittle behavior • Strain as a function of time under stress: – Elastic = no permanent strain – Plastic = permanent strain Elastic Modulus • An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it.
• where lambda (λ) is the elastic modulus. If stress
is measured in Pascal, since strain is a dimensionless quantity, then the units of λ are Pascal as well. • Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus. • For a model of a rod with rectangular cross section of area dA and length l the ratio of the stress, the applied axial force divided by the cross sectional area, to the strain, the change in length dl divided by the length is a constant. The constant now known as Young’s modulus, is given by: • The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform in all directions when uniformly loaded in all directions; it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain. • The uniform compression of a fluid or solid under hydrostatic pressure (again force divided by area) produces a strain which is the fractional change in volume and the constant of proportionality is the bulk modulus K. For the following cube: • The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or μ) describes an object's tendency to shear (the deformation of shape at constant volume) when acted upon by opposing forces; it is defined as shear stress over shear strain. • Finally for an element in shear, the force is applied tangentially to one of the sides of the cube. The stress is now the force divided by the area over which the shear is applied, and the strain is the lateral deformation dl divided by height of the element, l. For small deformations the latter ratio is simply the angular deformation θ. Poisson’s ratio • One more important physical property is Poisson’s relationship. When an object is compressed (or extended) it is observed that it expands (or contracts) perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress. This is illustrated by the compression of the rectangular block in the following cartoon. The ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain is Poisson’s ratio.