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Elasticity and Seismic Waves

1) Stress is a force applied per unit area that induces strain or deformation in materials. Strain is the amount of deformation compared to the original size and shape. 2) Materials have different elastic moduli depending on the type of stress or strain. Young's modulus describes tensile elasticity. The bulk modulus describes volumetric elasticity under uniform compression. Shear modulus describes elasticity under shear stress. 3) Hooke's law states that strain is proportional to stress for elastic deformation. Beyond the elastic limit, permanent plastic deformation occurs until failure of the material.

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63 views11 pages

Elasticity and Seismic Waves

1) Stress is a force applied per unit area that induces strain or deformation in materials. Strain is the amount of deformation compared to the original size and shape. 2) Materials have different elastic moduli depending on the type of stress or strain. Young's modulus describes tensile elasticity. The bulk modulus describes volumetric elasticity under uniform compression. Shear modulus describes elasticity under shear stress. 3) Hooke's law states that strain is proportional to stress for elastic deformation. Beyond the elastic limit, permanent plastic deformation occurs until failure of the material.

Uploaded by

Taimoor Hassan
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Elasticity and Seismic Waves

Stress and Strain


• Stress is defined as force per unit area.
• Strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object
experiences compared to its original size and shape.
• When a force is applied to a material, it deforms: stress
induces strain
• The SI unit for stress is the Pascal (symbol Pa), which is
equivalent to one Newton (force) per square meter (unit
area), that is N/m2. In Imperial units, stress is measured in
pound-force per square inch, which is abbreviated as psi.
• Strains are dimensionless and are usually expressed as a
decimal fraction or a percentage.
• For some materials, disformation is reversible = elastic
materials
• Compression. Stress that acts to shorten an object.
• Tension. Stress that acts to lengthen an object.
• Normal Stress. Stress that acts perpendicular to a surface.
Can be either compressional or tensional.
• Shear Stress that acts parallel to a surface. It can cause one
object to slide over another. It also tends to deform originally
rectangular objects into parallelograms. The most general
definition is that shear acts to change the angles in an object.
• Hydrostatic Stress (usually compressional) that is uniform in
all directions. Stress in the earth is nearly hydrostatic. The
term for uniform stress in the earth is lithostatic.
• Directed Stress. Stress that varies with direction. Stress under
a stone slab is directed; there is a force in one direction but no
counteracting forces perpendicular to it.
• Longitudinal or Linear Strain. Strain that changes the length of
a line without changing its direction. Can be either
compressional or tensional.
• Compression strain. Longitudinal strain that shortens an object.
• Tension. Longitudinal strain that lengthens an object.
• Shear Strain that changes the angles of an object. Shear causes
lines to rotate.
• Homogeneous Strain. Uniform strain. Straight lines in the
original object remain straight. Parallel lines remain parallel.
Circles deform to ellipses. Note that this definition rules out
folding, since an originally straight layer has to remain straight.
• Inhomogeneous Strain. How real geology behaves.
Deformation varies from place to place. Lines may bend and do
not necessarily remain parallel.
Stress-strain relation
• Strain is proportional to stress = Hooke’s law
• Stress-strain relation:
– Elastic domain:
• Stress-strain relation is linear
• Hooke’s law applies
– Beyond elastic domain:
• Initial shape not recovered when stress is removed
• Plastic deformation
• Eventually stress > strength of material => failure
– Failure can occur within the elastic domain = brittle
behavior
• Strain as a function of time under stress:
– Elastic = no permanent strain
– Plastic = permanent strain
Elastic Modulus
• An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is
the mathematical description of an object or
substance's tendency to be deformed elastically
(i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to
it.

• where lambda (λ) is the elastic modulus. If stress


is measured in Pascal, since strain is a
dimensionless quantity, then the units of λ are
Pascal as well.
• Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the
tendency of an object to deform along an axis when opposing
forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio of
tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to simply as
the elastic modulus.
• For a model of a rod with rectangular cross section of area dA
and length l the ratio of the stress, the applied axial force
divided by the cross sectional area, to the strain, the change
in length dl divided by the length is a constant. The constant
now known as Young’s modulus, is given by:
• The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the
tendency of an object to deform in all directions when
uniformly loaded in all directions; it is defined as volumetric
stress over volumetric strain.
• The uniform compression of a
fluid or solid under hydrostatic
pressure (again force divided by
area) produces a strain which is
the fractional change in volume
and the constant of
proportionality is the bulk
modulus K. For the following
cube:
• The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or μ) describes
an object's tendency to shear (the deformation of shape at
constant volume) when acted upon by opposing forces; it is
defined as shear stress over shear strain.
• Finally for an element in shear, the force is applied
tangentially to one of the sides of the cube. The stress is now
the force divided by the area over which the shear is applied,
and the strain is the lateral deformation dl divided by height
of the element, l. For small deformations the latter ratio is
simply the angular deformation θ.
Poisson’s ratio
• One more important physical property is Poisson’s
relationship. When an object is compressed (or extended) it is
observed that it expands (or contracts) perpendicular to the
direction of the applied stress. This is illustrated by the
compression of the rectangular block in the following cartoon.
The ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain is Poisson’s
ratio.

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