Periodic Properties of The Elements

Periodic Properties
of the Elements
Development of Periodic
Table
Elements in the same

group generally have
similar chemical
properties.
Properties are not
identical, however.
Development of Periodic
Table
Dmitri Mendeleev
and Lothar Meyer
independently
came to the same
conclusion about
how elements
should be grouped.
Mendeleev insisted elements be listed in the same family
based on chemical and physical properties.
This forced him to leave several blank spaces in his table.

Development of Periodic Table
Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the discovery of

germanium (which he called eka-silicon) as an
element with an atomic weight between that of zinc
and arsenic, but with chemical properties similar to
those of silicon.
1913, two years after Rutherford proposed his
Nuclear Model of the atom, an English physicist
named Henry Mosely developed the concept of
atomic numbers.
Mosely determined that the frequency of X-rays
emitted as different elements were bombarded
with high energy electrons.
He found that each element produces unique
frequencies
He found that frequency increased as atomic
number increased
He arranged frequencies in order by assigning
whole number values called atomic number.
This method clarified some problems with early versions of
the periodic table which was based on atomic weight.
Ex. Atomic weight of Ar (18) is greater than K (19)

Periodic Trends
In this chapter, we will rationalize

observed trends in
Sizes of atoms and ions.
Ionization energy.
Electron affinity.
Electronegativity
Effective Nuclear Charge
Many properties of atoms depend on:
Electron configuration
How strongly outer electrons are attracted to
the nucleus.
Force of attraction between an electron and
nucleus depends on:
the magnitude of the net nuclear charge
acting on the electron
Average distance between the nucleus and
In a many-electron atom,
electrons are both
attracted to the nucleus
and repelled by other
electrons.
The nuclear charge that an
electron experiences
depends on both factors.
The effective nuclear
charge, Zeff, is found this
way:
Zeff = Z − S
where Z is the atomic
number and S is a
screening constant,
usually close to the
number of inner electrons.
In a many electron atom:
Each electron is simultaneously
attracted to the nucleus
Repelled by other electrons
We can estimate the net attraction of
each electron to the nucleus by
considering how it interacts with the
average environment created by the
nucleus and the other electrons in the
atom.
What we can do is treat each electron
individually as it is moving through an
electric field created by the nucleus
And the electron density of other electrons.
In other words:
The nucleus attracts valence electrons and
inner shell electrons repel them.
We want to know: What is the net result.
It is called effective nuclear charge.
Effective nuclear charge is smaller than the
actual nuclear charge.
What is the effective nuclar charge for Na?
Nuclear charge is 11
Screening constant 10
We expect the 3s electron to experience an effective
nuclear charge of +1
This is why 2p electrons are higher in energy than 2s
elecrons
2s electrons are less effectively shielded by the
nucleus than 2p
2s have higher Zeff than 2p
The greater attraction of 2s to nucleus leads to lower
energy
Sizes of Atoms
The bonding atomic

radius is defined as
one-half of the distance
between covalently
bonded nuclei.
Sizes of Atoms
Bonding atomic radius
tends to…
…decrease from left to
right across a row
due to increasing Zeff.
…increase from top to

bottom of a column
due to increasing value of n
Sizes of Ions
Ionic size depends
upon:
Nuclear charge.
Number of electrons.
Orbitals in which
electrons reside.
Sizes of Ions
Cations are smaller
than their parent
atoms.
The outermost
electron is removed
and repulsions are
reduced.
Sizes of Ions
Anions are larger

than their parent
atoms.
Electrons are added
and repulsions are
increased.
Sizes of Ions
Ions increase in size as

you go down a
column.
Due to increasing value
of n.
Sizes of Ions
In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same

number of electrons.
Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear
charge.
Ionization Energy
Amount of energy required to remove an
electron from the ground state of a
gaseous atom or ion.
First ionization energy is that energy
required to remove first electron.
Second ionization energy is that energy
required to remove second electron,
etc.
Ionization Energy
In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same number
of electrons.
Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear charge.
Trends in First Ionization
Energies
As one goes down a
column, less energy is
required to remove the
first electron.
For atoms in the same
group, Zeff is essentially
the same, but the valence
electrons are farther from
the nucleus.
Energies
Generally, as one goes

across a row, it gets
harder to remove an
electron.
As you go from left to
right, Zeff increases.
Energies
However, there are two

apparent
discontinuities in this
trend.
Energies
The first occurs between
Groups IIA and IIIA.
Electron removed from p-
orbital rather than s-
orbital
Electron farther from
nucleus
Small amount of repulsion
by s electrons.
Energies
The second occurs
between Groups VA and
VIA.
Electron removed comes
from doubly occupied
orbital.
Repulsion from other

electron in orbital helps in
its removal.
Electron Affinity
Energy change accompanying addition of electron to gaseous

atom:
Cl + e− ⎯⎯→ Cl−
Trends in Electron Affinity
In general, electron
affinity becomes more
exothermic as you go
from left to right
across a row.
There are again,

however, two
discontinuities in
this trend.
The first occurs
between Groups IA
and IIA.
Added electron must go
in p-orbital, not s-
orbital.
Electron is farther from

nucleus and feels
repulsion from s-
electrons.
The second occurs

between Groups IVA
and VA.
Group VA has no empty
orbitals.
Extra electron must go

into occupied orbital,
creating repulsion.
Properties of Metal,
Nonmetals,
and Metalloids
Metals versus Nonmetals
Differences between metals and nonmetals tend to

revolve around these properties.
Metals versus Nonmetals
Metals tend to form cations.

Nonmetals tend to form anions.
Metals
Tend to be lustrous,
malleable, ductile, and
good conductors of
heat and electricity.
Metals
Compounds formed
between metals and
nonmetals tend to be
ionic.
Metal oxides tend to
be basic.
Nonmetals
Dull, brittle substances

that are poor
conductors of heat and
electricity.
Tend to gain electrons
in reactions with
metals to acquire noble
gas configuration.
Nonmetals
Substances containing
only nonmetals are
molecular compounds.
Most nonmetal oxides
are acidic.
Metalloids
Have some
characteristics of
metals, some of
nonmetals.
For instance, silicon
looks shiny, but is
brittle and fairly poor
conductor.
Group Trends
Alkali Metals
Soft, metallic solids.

Name comes from
Arabic word for ashes.
Alkali Metals
Found only as compounds in nature.

Have low densities and melting points.
Also have low ionization energies.
Alkali Metals
Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.

Alkali Metals
Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to

form peroxides.
K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
K + O2 ⎯⎯→ KO2
Produce bright colors when placed in flame.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Have higher densities and melting points than

alkali metals.
Have low ionization energies, but not as low as
alkali metals.
Alkaline Earth Metals
Be does not react with

water, Mg reacts only
with steam, but others
react readily with
water.
Reactivity tends to
increase as go down
group.
Group 6A
Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.

Tellurium is a metalloid.
The radioactive polonium is a metal.
Oxygen
Two allotropes:
O2
O3, ozone
Three anions:
O2−, oxide
O22−, peroxide
O21−, superoxide
Tends to take electrons from

other elements (oxidation)
Sulfur
Weaker oxidizing
agent than oxygen.
Most stable allotrope
is S8, a ringed
molecule.
Group VIIA: Halogens
Prototypical nonmetals
Name comes from the Greek halos and gennao:
“salt formers”
Group VIIA: Halogens
Large, negative electron
affinities
Therefore, tend to oxidize other
elements easily
React directly with metals to

form metal halides
Chlorine added to water
supplies to serve as
disinfectant
Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
Astronomical ionization energies

Positive electron affinities
Therefore, relatively unreactive
Monatomic gases
Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
Xe forms three compounds:
XeF2
XeF4 (at right)
XeF6
Kr forms only one stable

compound:
KrF2
The unstable HArF was

synthesized in 2000.

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Periodic Properties

Elements in the same

This forced him to leave several blank spaces in his table.

Mendeleev, for instance, predicted the discovery of

Ex. Atomic weight of Ar (18) is greater than K (19)

In this chapter, we will rationalize

The bonding atomic

…increase from top to

Anions are larger

Ions increase in size as

In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same

Generally, as one goes

However, there are two

Repulsion from other

Energy change accompanying addition of electron to gaseous

There are again,

Electron is farther from

The second occurs

Extra electron must go

Differences between metals and nonmetals tend to

Metals tend to form cations.

Dull, brittle substances

Soft, metallic solids.

Found only as compounds in nature.

Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.

Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to

Have higher densities and melting points than

Be does not react with

Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.

Tends to take electrons from

React directly with metals to

Astronomical ionization energies

XeF4 (at right)

Kr forms only one stable

The unstable HArF was

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