Reverse of a Regular Language

Theorem:
R
The reverse L of a regular language L
is a regular language

Proof idea:
R
Construct NFA that accepts L :

invert the transitions of the NFA

that accepts L
2
 Proof
Since L is regular,
there is NFA that accepts L

Example:
b
L  ab * ba
a

b a
3
Invert Transitions

a
b
a
4
Make old initial state a final state

a
b
a
5
Add a new initial state

a 

b 
a
6
Resulting machine accepts L R

L R is regular
L  ab * ba
b
L  b * a  ab
R

a

b
a
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Grammars
 Grammars
Grammars express languages
Example: the English language

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

noun _ phrase  article noun
predicate  verb

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article  a
article  the
noun  boy
noun  dog
verb  runs
verb  walks

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 A derivation of “the boy walks”:

sentence  noun _ phrase predicate

 noun _ phrase verb
 article noun verb
 the noun verb
 the boy verb
 the boy walks 11
A derivation of “a dog runs”:
sentence  noun _ phrase predicate
 noun _ phrase verb
 article noun verb
 a noun verb
 a dog verb
 a dog runs
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Language of the grammar:
L = { “a boy runs”,
“a boy walks”,
“the boy runs”,
“the boy walks”,
“a dog runs”,
“a dog walks”,
“the dog runs”,
“the dog walks” }
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 Notation
noun  boy
noun  dog

Variable Terminal
Production
or
rule
Non-terminal

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 Another Example
Grammar: S  aSb
S 

Derivation of sentence : ab

S  aSb  ab

S  aSb S 
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Grammar: S  aSb
S 

Derivation of sentence : aabb

S  aSb  aaSbb  aabb

S  aSb S 
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Other derivations:
S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb

 aaaaSbbbb  aaaabbbb

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Language of the grammar

S  aSb
S 

L  {a b : n  0}
n n

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 More Notation

Grammar G  V ,T , S , P 
V: Set of variables or nonterminals

T: Set of terminal symbols or terminals

S: Start variable or start symbol

P : Set of Production rules

19
 Example
S  aSb
Grammar G:
S 

G  V ,T , S , P 

V  {S} T  {a, b} P  {S  aSb, S }

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 More Notation
Sentential Form:
A sentence that contains
variables and terminals

Example:
S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

Sentential Forms sentence

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 *
We write: S  aaabbb

Instead of:

S  aSb  aaSbb  aaaSbbb  aaabbb

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 *
In general we write: w1  wn

If: w1  w2  w3    wn

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 *
By default: w  w

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 Example
Grammar Derivations
S  aSb *
S
S  *
S  ab
*
S  aabb
*
S  aaabbb

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 Example

Grammar Derivations
S  aSb 
S  aaSbb
S 


aaSbb  aaaaaSbbbbb

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 Another Grammar Example
Grammar G: S  Ab
A  aAb
A 

Derivations:
S  Ab  b
S  Ab  aAbb  abb
S  aAbb  aaAbbb  aabbb
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 More Derivations
S  Ab  aAbb  aaAbbb  aaaAbbbb
 aaaaAbbbbb  aaaabbbbb


S  aaaabbbbb

S  aaaaaabbbbbbb

S a b b
n n
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 Language of a Grammar

For a grammar G
with start variable : S

L(G )  {w : S  w}

String of terminals
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 Example
For grammar : G S  Ab
A  aAb
A 

L(G )  {a b b : n  0}
n n


Since: S a b b
n n

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 A Convenient Notation

A  aAb A  aAb | 
A 

article  a
article  a | the
article  the

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Linear Grammars
 Linear Grammars
Grammars with at most one variable at the right
side of a production

Examples:
S  aSb S  Ab
S  A  aAb
A 

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 A Non-Linear Grammar
Grammar G: S  SS
S 
S  aSb
S  bSa

L(G )  {w : na ( w)  nb ( w)}

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 Another Linear Grammar

Grammar G: SA
A  aB | 
B  Ab

L(G)  {a b : n  0}
n n

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 Right-Linear Grammars
A  xB
All productions have the form: or
A x

S  abS
Example: S  a

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 Left-Linear Grammars
A  Bx
All productions have the form: or
A x

S  Aab
Example: A  Aab | B

Ba
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Regular Grammars
 Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar

Examples: G1 G2
S  abS S  Aab
S a A  Aab | B
Ba
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 Observation
Regular grammars generate regular languages
Examples:
G1 G2
S  abS S  Aab
S a A  Aab | B
Ba
L(G1)  (ab) * a L(G2 )  aab(ab) *
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Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages
 Theorem

Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

42
 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular grammar generates

a regular language

43
 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language is generated

by a regular grammar

44
 Proof – Part 1
Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

The language L(G ) generated by

any regular grammar G is regular

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 The case of Right-Linear Grammars

Let G be a right-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea: We will construct NFA M

with L( M )  L(G )

46
Grammar G is right-linear
Example: S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a

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Construct NFA M such that
every state is a grammar variable: A
special
S B VF
final state

S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a 48
Add edges for each production:
a A
S VF
B

S  aA
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 a A
S VF

B

S  aA | B

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 A
a a

S a VF


B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
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 A
a a

S a VF


B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB 52
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
S  aA | B B
A  aa B b
B  bB | a
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 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B
b

S  aA  aaaB  aaabB  aaaba

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 NFA M Grammar
A G
a S  aA | B
a
A  aa B
S a B  bB | a
 VF
a
B
L( M )  L(G ) 
b
aaab * a  b * a
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 In General
A right-linear grammar G

has variables: V0 ,V1,V2 ,

Vi  a1a2  amV j
and productions:
or

Vi  a1a2  am
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We construct the NFA M such that:

each variable Vi corresponds to a node:

V1 V3
V0
VF
V2 special
V4
final state
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 Vi  a1a2  amV j
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am V
j

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 Vi  a1a2  am
For each production:

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am
VF

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 Resulting NFA M looks like this:
a9

a2 a4
a1 V1 V3
a3 a5
V0
a3 a4
VF
a8 a9
V2 a5
V4

It holds that: L(G )  L( M ) 60

 The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Let G be a left-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
grammar G with L(G )  L(G)
R

61
Since G is left-linear grammar
the productions look like:

A  Ba1a2 ak

A  a1a2  ak

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Construct right-linear grammar G
In G : A  Ba1a2 ak
A  vB

In G : A  ak  a2 a1B
Av B R
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Construct right-linear grammar G
In G : A  a1a2  ak
Av

In G : A  ak  a2 a1
Av R
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 L(G )  L(G) R

It is easy to see that:

Since G is right-linear, we have:

L(G) L(G) R L(G )

Regular Regular Regular
Language Language Language

65
 Proof - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language L is generated

by some regular grammar G

66
Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G

Proof idea:
Let M be the NFA with L  L(M ).

Construct from M a regular grammar G

such that L( M )  L(G )
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 Since L is regular L  L(M )
there is an NFA M such that b
Example:
M a
a
q0 q1 q2

 b
L  ab * ab(b * ab) * q3
L  L(M ) 68
Convert M to a right-linear
grammar b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2

 b
q0  aq1
q3

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 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1  b
q1  bq1 q3
q1  aq2

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 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1

q1  bq1 b

q1  aq2 q3

q2  bq3

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 L(G )  L( M )  L
G b
q0  aq 1 M
a a
q1  bq 1 q0 q1 q2
q1  aq 2
 b
q 2  bq 3
q 3  q1 q3
q3  

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 In General
a
For any transition: q p

Add production: q  ap

variable terminal variable

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For any final state: qf

Add production: q f 

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Since G is right-linear grammar

G is also a regular grammar

L(G )  L( M )  L
with

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