INSTRUMENT TRAINING

PART 2

Control Principles

Remote Measurement
Karthik
 Remote Measurment
It is often desirable to be able to read the value of a measurement
somewhere other than where the measurement is taken

Level Level
Transmitter Indicator

LT LI

Control Room
The signals in the Refinery
can be pneumatic or electric
 LT LI

• A Transmitter delivers the signal or

measurment from the sensing device
• A Transmitter can be part of the sensing
device
• Transducers convert the output of the
instrument to an electric or pneumatic
signal that is compatable with the next
instrument in the control loop
 LT LI

• Pneumatic signals are in the range 0.2

bar to 1 bar
• Electrical signals are in the range 4mA to
20 mA
• They can be mounted anywhere in the
control loop
• They can also be mounted on the Control
valve
 Instrument Range
• Instruments are ranged from 0% to 100 %
• If the output of the instrument is 0% then its
output signal will be 0.2 bar or 4 mA
• If the output of the instrument is 100% then its
output signal will be 1.0 bar or 20 mA
• If the output of the instrument is 50% of its
range then its output signal will be either 0.6
bar or 12 mA
• Note however on PEFS drawings the valve
signals are ranged from 0 to 1 ( zero output to
100% output)
 Instrument Range

Signal Output 4mA

0% Output

Signal Output 0.2 bar

LT LI
Empty

Signal Output 12mA

50% Output

Signal Output 0.6 bar

LT LI
50%

100% Output Signal Output 20mA

Signal Output 1.0 bar

LT LI
Full
 Valve Control

Signal Output 4mA

Signal Output 0.2 bar

LIC No Flow
Empty
Valve Fully Closed

Signal Output 20mA

100%
full Signal Output 1 bar
LIC Flow

Valve Fully Open

 Signal 0.2 bar

Valve Shut

No Flow

Signal 1 bar

Valve Opens

Flow
 Transducers
• Transducers convert the air signal to an
electrical signal.
• These are normally mounted on or are as part
of the Transmitter.
• The 0.2 to 1 bar signal is converted to 4 - 20 mA
• The signal passes to the Controller, locatted in
the Control Room.
• The Controller signal is sent to the valve where
a Transducer converts it back to an air signal
 4 - 20 mA

Transducer
0.2 - 1 bar

0.2 - 1 bar

Control Loop
Control Valves
 Control Valves
• Control valves are remotely operated
• They can be air operated or electrically
operated
• Most of the Refineries control valves are
air operated
• Electrical signals are sent from the
Control Room to the valve
• The signals are converted at the valve to
a pneumatic signal to operate the valve
Spring
Diaphragm

Control Valve
 Signal 0.2 bar

Air Supply

No Flow
Control Valve
 Valve Actuator

Signal 1.0 bar

Air Supply

Flow
 Air failure Valve Closes

Air Supply

No Flow
Control Valve
Valve Actuator Air Supply Signal 0.2 bar

Flow
Control Valve
Valve Actuator Air Supply Signal 1.0 bar

No Flow
Control Valve
Valve Actuator Air Supply

Air failure Valve Opens

Flow
Control Valve
 • Many Valves are designed to open or shut
when air pressure is lost
• This is a plant safety feature
• An arrow on the PEFS shows the fail safe
position Painted Blue
Painted Red

Fails to Closed Position Fails to Open Position

 Valve Positioners

An auxillary device on the control valve

used to make sure that the valve stem moves
the exact amount it is supposed to
Valve Positioner
Valve Positioner
 0.2 to 1 bar
4mA to 20 mA

Valve Positioner

• An electrical signal is sent from the controller to the

valve
• It is in the range 4mA to 20 mA
• A signal of 12 mA tells the valve to open 50 %
• The signal is converted at the valve by the valve
positioner to an air signal of 0.6 bar and the valve
begins to move to the 50% open position
• An interconnecting linkage system provides feed back
of the valves actual position to the valve positioner.
• It re-adjusts the air until the valves position matches
that required by the controller
Valve Positioners
Air Supply

Output to valve

Valve Positioners
Regulator or Reducing valves are used to keep instrument air at
a constant pressure. In the plant every instrument has its own
reducing valve which is combined with a filter.
 Adjustment
Knob

Diaphragm

Check vent for water Filter

Vent \ drain Valve

Filter Regulator
Regulator
Regulator
Regulator
 Alarms
Alarms are used to warn an operator when the process moves
outside of set parameters.The alarms can sound warning signals
locally or in the control room.

They can also be used to trip the process to a safe condition

 Alarm set for 140 degrees
Temperature Temperature
Recorder Controller Alarm

TRC TA

Temperature
TT Transmitter

Temperature 120 degrees

Alarms
 Alarm set for 140 degrees
Temperature Temperature
Recorder Controller Alarm

TRC TA

Temperature
TT Transmitter

Temperature 140 degrees

Alarms
 Trips

Alarms can be used to trip process equipment to a safe condition

Solenoid Valves are used to trip a control valve
Solenoid

Trips
 Reset

Trip System

Air Signal to valve Solenoid

Vent
 Safe Signal
Trip

Air to Valve

Blow Off
Soleniod Valve
Trips
 Unsafe Signal
Reset Trip

The Solenoid will not allow the

valve to open until the emergency
alarm has been cleared and the
reset button pressed

Air to Valve No Flow

Blow Off
Soleniod Valve Trips
Trip set to 150 degrees Alarm set for 140 degrees
Temperature Temperature Temperature
Emergency Recorder Controller Alarm

TEA TRC TA

Solenoid
Temperature
TT Transmitter

Temperature 140 degrees

Trips
 Trip set to 150 degrees Alarm set for 140 degrees
Temperature Temperature Temperature
Emergency Recorder Controller Alarm

TEA TRC TA

Blow Off Temperature

TT Transmitter

Temperature 150 degrees

Trips
Pilot air pressure
Switch
3 way
Solenoid Valve

Blow Off

Maximum
allowable level

Supply of Product

Trips
Pilot air pressure
Switch
3 way
Solenoid Valve

Blow Off

Maximum
allowable level

Supply of Product

Trips
Pilot air pressure
Switch
3 way
Solenoid Valve

Blow Off

Maximum
allowable level

Valve closes on air failure

Supply of Product

Trips
Break Time
 Control Systems

A room heater has a simple control system

 Power

Off Thermostat Adjustment

Control Systems
 Power

On Thermostat Adjustment

On / Off Regulator Control Control Systems

Thermometer

Operator aims to keep equipment

at correct temperature by looking
at temperature gauge and adjusting
the cooling water

Manual Control
 The temperature is sent to a local
temperature indicator by a sender
Temperature Sender Unit unit.
However the operator still
has to adjust the cooling water
valve by hand
Temperature Indicator

Remote
Measuring
 The temperature is compared
against the required temperature
and the control valve adjusts the
cooling water flow

Regulator
and Control Valve
Automatic
Control
 Controllers
• There are many different types of
Controllers
• Level Controllers
• Flow Controllers
• Pressure Controllers
• Temperature Controllers
• They all open or close control valves to
adjust the process
Control Systems
Required Speed 50 km/hr

45 km/hr
Actual Speed 45 km/hr

Required Speed 50 km/hr

Difference Speed 5 km/hr

Correction Required
Control Systems
Required Speed 50 km/hr

52 km/hr
Actual Speed 52 km/hr

Required Speed 50 km/hr

Difference Speed 2 km/hr

Further Correction Required

Control Systems
Required Speed 50 km/hr

50 km/hr
Actual Speed 50 km/hr

Required Speed 50 km/hr

Difference Speed 0 km/hr

No Correction Required
 Set Value or Set Point

Desired
Speed

Compare Correct

Measure

Control Systems
 Drivers Brain The Drivers foot The valve in the
carburettor
Comparing
Instrument

Control Operating Correcting Process

Instrument Element Element
Set
Value
The Car moving
along the road
The eyes of the driver

Measuring Sensor
Element Instrument

Internal parts Gear Transmission to

of the speedo which speedo is attached
Control Systems
 Comparing Control Operating
Instrument Instrument Element

Measuring Correcting
Element Element

Sensor Process
Instrument
The Control Process Control Systems
 Types of Controllers
• A level Controller keeps the level in a
system at the required level or set point
• A Flow Controller keeps the flow in a
system at the required flow or set point
• A Pressure Controller keeps the pressure
in a system at the required pressure or set
point
• A Temperature Controller keeps the
temperature in a system at the required
temperature or set point
 Level --- LC - LRC - LRCA

Pressure --- PC - PRC - PRCA

Flow --- FC - FRC - FRCA

Temperature --- TC - TRC - TRCA

Simple Controller
 Valve is 50% open when level is 50%

Pivot

50% 50%

Supply

Drain Process is Steady

Flow in is equal to flow out
Control Systems
Proportional Controllers
 Level must drop to 40% before supply valve fully opens

Pivot

50%
40%

Offset

Supply

Drain Increase in flow from

Proportional Controllers
tank causes level to drop
 Level must rise to 60% before supply valve shuts

Pivot

60%
50%

Offset

Supply

Drain
Proportional Controllers Flow drops off and level rises
• The measured value is not always the
same as the set point
• The difference between the set point and
the measured value is called the offset
• For a set point of 50% the instrument
range is between 40% and 60 %
• A higher or lower value has no effect on
the control valve
• Adjusting the length of the float will
change the range
• For a set point of 80% the instrument
range is between 70% and 90 %
 Pivot
40%

Supply
Drain

• In an only proportional controller:

The output of the controller is proportional to the deviation.

• The greater the deviation or offset The greater the opening

of the inlet valve.

• There must be an offset in level for the controller to open in

response to the new demand.

• If there is no deviation, there is no change from the controller

• Proportional control will only arrest the deviation.
It will not return the process variable to the desired position.
 Proportional only control is clearly not suitable for controlling
process systems in most modern process industries as return
of the process variable to the desired value is necessary in
most applications.

Represented graphically:

Recovery time

Desired value
OFFSET

Proportional Control
Proportional control

Proportional Controllers
Integral and Derivative
Controllers
• Proportional control will only arrest the
deviation.
• It will not return the process variable
back to the desired position.
• Integral Controllers look at the offset
caused by a change in demand from a
proportional controller
• The integral controller will then adjust
the output to the valve to a greater value
than a proportional controller
• The offset is diminished to zero
 Integral (Reset Action ) Control

Recovery Time

Desired Value

Integral action causes the controller to over react

reducing the OFFSET to zero.
Integral and Derivative
Controllers
 Derivative Control
Derivative or rate control is where the output is proportional
to the rate of change of the deviation.
Derivative control accelerates a control action overcoming
the effects of a time lag in the system by temporary
over-adjustment. It causes a controller to act faster

Recovery Time

Desired Value

Integral and Derivative

Controllers
 Proportional Integral Derivative Summy

• Proportional action does the bulk of the

correction, generating an output change
depending on the deviation
• Integral action has no effect imediately
after a deviation has occurred. Its effect
is more significant the longer the
deviation persists
• Derivative has an effect in the early
stages of a deviation and has no effect
after a short time
 Recovery Time
Proportional
Action

Offset

Recovery Time

Proportional
Action
Plus Integral

Recovery Time

Proportional
Action
Plus Integral
Plus Derivative
Integral and Derivative
Controllers
 I’m lost now

Stop I can’t take any more

Control Systems
Manual -Auto - Cascade
 The operator observes the level in the vessel, compares
it with the required level and adjusts the valve to achieve
that level.

The level gauge is the measuring instrument that gives

the operator information about the process. It is the
V1 process variable or PV.

LG Level Gauge

The level required in the vessel is known by the operator.

It is the set value or set point - SP. The difference between Manual Control
the two values is known as the deviation
 Control action takes place
when there is a difference
between the actual process
value and the set value
V1

LG Level Gauge

Manual Control
Proportional Band (Gain) SP Set Point
Time Integral (Reset)
PV
Time Derivative (Rate)
Process Variable

E
V1
PB
Level Transmitter TI
TD
LT

Output
O/P

Automatic Control
 SP Set Point
In an automatic control system a
controller takes the place of an PV
operator in the adjustment of Process Value
the process
E
V1
PB
Level Transmitter TI
TD
LT

Output
O/P

The level transmitter sends a

signal to the controller (PV) Automatic Control
The operator sets the level required SP Set Point
in the vessel by adjustment of the
set point control (SP) PV
Process Value

E
V1
PB
Level Transmitter TI
TD
LT

Output
O/P

The instrument takes the difference

of the two signals (E) and gives an
output signal (O/P) to adjust the
valve accordingly. Automatic Control
 SP Set Point
(E), the deviation is calculated PV

Process Value

E
V1
PB
Level Transmitter TI
TD
LT

Output
E is manipulated using up to 3 actions O/P
Proportional Band Direct Action
Integral Time Trimming Action
Derivative Time Anticipating Action
Automatic Control
Let’s do some
EXERCISE
 Tank requires a level
control system and a
Feed high level alarm

Vessel requires a level control system

Rundown to tankage

Exercise 1
 LA Alarm

Feed

LRC

Rundown to tankage

Exercise 1 Solution
 LA Alarm

Feed

LRC

LRC

Rundown to tankage

Exercise 1 Solution
Auto Cascade Systems
 Auto Cascade Control System
Used where there is an overall system to control
and an internal system that is subject to fluctuations.

Master and Slave C1

V1
FG
LG

The two controllers have totally different functions.

They only share the same means of achieving their targets
The MASTER Auto doesCascade Control
no direct work System
but tells the slave what
to do. In this case the master has to control the overall
balance (i.e. level)

Master and Slave C1

V1
FG
LG

Slaves' only job is to control the short term flow fluctuations due
to pressure fluctuations. In general the slave will work about
3-5 times faster than the master depending on the system.
 Auto Cascade Control System

Set Point SP
Slave
Process Value Process Value
C1
PV PV
V1 LC FC
SP
Set Point
LT FT
Master
Output O/P

Control Systems
 Control Systems
Split Range

Some systems require two or more valves to operate off the same
controller. These are called split range controllers
 Split Range Control
COLUMN

FURNACE

0.5 - 1.0
0 - 0.5
B
0.5
A

FRC
1000 tonnes per day

LC
1000 tonnes per day VESSEL

When signal is 0.5 both valves are shut 1000 tonnes per day
 Split Range Control
COLUMN
200 tonnes per day
FURNACE

0.5 - 1.0
0 - 0.5
B
A
0.6

FC 1000 tonnes per day

LC
1200 tonnes per day VESSEL

When signal is above 0.5 valve B opens 1000 tonnes per day
 Split Range Control
COLUMN

FURNACE

0.5 - 1.0
0 - 0.5
0.4 B
A

200 tonnes per day FC 1000 tonnes per day

LC
800 tonnes per day VESSEL

When signal is below 0.5 valve A opens and B Shuts 1000 tonnes per day
At a signal of 0.5 valve A
is fully closed Valve A Signal from
Valve B is fully closed. Controller
No flow through either ot 0.5
the valves.

O
C

Valve B

O
C
At a signal of 0 valve A
is fully open Valve A Signal from
Valve B is fully closed. 0-50% Controller
Flow through Valve A 0
No flow through valve B

O
C

Valve B 50-100%

O
C
At a signal of 1 valve A
is fully closed Valve A Signal from
Valve B is fully open Controller
0-50%
No flow through Valve A. 1
Flow through valve B

O
C

Valve B 50-100%

O
C
 Spit Range Valve Positions
Open Open Open
0 1 0 1 0 1

0.5 Signal 0.5 Signal 0.5 Signal

A
Valve B
Valve A B A B
A Gap B Overlap

Closed Closed Closed

Nitrogen Blanket on a tank 30-PRC-001 Platformer Feed Balance

Another Exercise
 Hydrogen RG

Requires a Controller to control

the level in the vessel Requires a split range pressure
controller to allow import of
Hydrogen or export of gas to RG
V-3001
V-3001

Feed
Requires a Controller to control
the feed flow to the Reactors

Reactors E
Exercise 2
 Hydrogen RG
0 - 0.5 0.5 - 1.0
Split range Level controller
PRC
to allow waxy from
Reverse
Reverse U-2000
acting
acting valve
valve Split range pressure controller
& T-8111 to allow import of Hydrogen
or export of gas to RG
LRC

V-3001
V-3001
0-50%
Flow controller to allow
Feed P-3001 flow to Reactor
Trains

50-100%
50-100%
FRC-229

P-3001
FC-100
U-2000

T-8111
HGO

R-3001 E
Exercise 2 solution
In certain emergency situations when a system trips,
it may be required that the valve that has tripped should
remain in its last set position. A valve lock up system is
used to achieve this function.

Lock Up Systems
 Instrument air
7.5 bar pressure

Filter Regulator

3.5 Bar

0-1 bar
Valve
Positioner Electrical Signal
from Control Room

Air Control System

 Instrument air
7.5 bar pressure

7.5 bar Filter Regulator

0.4 bar signal
Lock Up Device
3.5 Bar
0.4 bar
Lock
7.5 bar air
Up Open

0-1 bar 0.4 bar

Valve
Positioner Electrical Signal
12 mA from Control Room
0.4 bar signal

When air fails valve locks in last position

Lock Up Systems
 Instrument air
0 bar pressure

0 bar Filter Regulator

0.4 bar signal
Lock Up Device
3.5 Bar
0.4 bar
Lock
7.5 bar air
Up Closed

0-1 bar
Valve
Positioner Electrical Signal
12 mA from Control Room
0 bar signal

When air fails valve locks in last position

Lock Up Systems
 Lockup
Device

Lock Up Systems
Foxboro Control
System
 Foxboro Control
• The Foxboro controller can be used to
locally control a part of the process
• It is often used for local level control and
is used as a minimum stop pressure
controller of fuel to many of the furnaces
• It is designed to control a valve using a
pneumatic signal adjusting the valve as
necessary to keep the process related to
the set point
• It can be switched from manual to auto
 Manual
Auto Switch

Foxboro Control
Foxboro Model 43 Controller
 Spillback local level control on Sulphur Pit system

Foxboro Model 43

Spillback

To tankage
LT

Sulphur Pit

As level falls controller opens spillback valve

 Spillback local level control on Sulphur Pit system

Foxboro Model 43

Spillback

To tankage
LT

Sulphur Pit

As level falls controller opens spillback valve

 Manual Auto

Auto System
1 bar Output
Control Knob

0.4 bar 0.4 bar

Foxboro Model 43 Manual /Auto adjust

 Manual Auto

Auto System
1 bar Output
Control Knob
0.5 bar
0.5
0.4bar
bar 0.4 bar

Foxboro Model 43 Manual /Auto adjust

 Manual Auto

Auto System
1 bar Output
Control Knob
0.5 bar
0.5
0.4bar
bar 0.5 bar

Foxboro Model 43 Manual /Auto adjust

Relays - Multipliers
Hand switches
 Computing Relay

b=1-a

100% a 30 b 0%
X
40% 305 60%

Inverter

Input signal of 100% = Output signal of zero

Input signal of 40% = Output signal of 60%

 30
Reset XE Manual Reset Switch
309

Solenoid Valve

Control Valve
 Hand Switch

To Valve B

30
HC
012

Signal

To Valve A
 Hand Switch

To Valve B

30
HC
012

Signal

To Valve A
Valve B

30
HC
012

Valve A
The Control Room
• The heart of a centralised automatic
control system is the Control Room
• By installing the controllers in a central
location, the process can be efectively
monitored and controlled by a minimum
number of operators
• Display screens allow the operator to
monitor and control all aspects of the
plant
• In addition alarms are provided to alert
the operator when process variables
deviate from the normal.
• TDC 2000 was our Distributed Control
System, DCS, which has now been
replaced by Fox IA version 4.3
• It can easily deal with a great number of
control loops
• A great number of controllers may be
monitored and serviced from a central
point ( Control Room)
 Pressure

Level

Temperature Flow

Signals sent from

Data Highway the Control Room
to the Plant

Signals come from the

Plant to the Control Room
The End