Operations on Languages

• Let L, L1, L2 be subsets of Σ*

• Concatenation: L1L2 = {xy | x is in L1 and y is in L2}

• Concatenating a language with itself: L0 = {ε}

Li = LLi-1, for all i >= 1


• Kleene Closure: L* =  Li = L0 U L1 U L2 U…
i 0

• Positive Closure: L+ =  Li = L1 U L2 U…
i 1

• Question: Does L+ contain ε?

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 Kleene closure

Say, L1 ={a, abc, ba}, on Σ ={a,b,c}

Then, L2 = {aa, aabc, aba, abca, abcabc, abcba, baa, baabc, baba}
L3= {a, abc, ba}. L2

L* = {ε, L1, L2, L3, . . .}

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 Regular Expressions

• Highlights:
– A regular expression is used to specify a language, and it does so
precisely.
– Regular expressions are very intuitive.
– Regular expressions are very useful in a variety of contexts.
– Given a regular expression, an NFA-ε can be constructed from it
automatically.
– Thus, so can an NFA, a DFA, and a corresponding program, all
automatically!

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 Definition of a Regular Expression

• Let Σ be an alphabet. The regular expressions over Σ are:

– Ø Represents the empty set { }

– ε Represents the set {ε}
– a Represents the set {a}, for any symbol a in Σ

Let r and s be regular expressions that represent the sets R and S, respectively.

– r+s Represents the set R U S (precedence 3)

– rs Represents the set RS (precedence 2)
– r* Represents the set R* (highest precedence)
– (r) Represents the set R (not an op, provides precedence)

• If r is a regular expression, then L(r) is used to denote the corresponding language.

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• Examples: Let Σ = {0, 1}

(0 + 1)* All strings of 0’s and 1’s

0(0 + 1)* All strings of 0’s and 1’s, beginning with a 0

(0 + 1)*1 All strings of 0’s and 1’s, ending with a 1

(0 + 1)*0(0 + 1)* All strings of 0’s and 1’s containing at least one 0

(0 + 1)*0(0 + 1)*0(0 + 1)* All strings of 0’s and 1’s containing at least two 0’s

(0 + 1)*01*01* All strings of 0’s and 1’s containing at least two 0’s

(1 + 01*0)* All strings of 0’s and 1’s containing an even number of 0’s

1*(01*01*)* All strings of 0’s and 1’s containing an even number of 0’s

(1*01*0)*1* All strings of 0’s and 1’s containing an even number of 0’s

• Question: Is there a unique minimum regular expression for a given language?

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• Identities:

1. Øu = uØ = Ø Multiply by 0
2. εu = uε = u Multiply by 1

3. Ø* = ε L* = Li = L0 U L1 U L2 U…

4. ε* = ε = {ε} i 0

5. u+v = v+u
6. u+Ø=u
7. u+u=u
8. u* = (u*)*
9. u(v+w) = uv+uw
10. (u+v)w = uw+vw
11. (uv)*u = u(vu)*
12. (u+v)* = (u*+v)*
= u*(u+v)*
= (u+vu*)*
= (u*v*)*
= u*(vu*)*
= (u*v)*u*

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 Equivalence of Regular Expressions
and NFA-εs
• Note:
Throughout the following, keep in mind that a string is accepted by an NFA-ε
if there exists a path from the start state to a final state.

• Lemma 1: Let r be a regular expression. Then there exists an NFA-ε M such

that L(M) = L(r). Furthermore, M has exactly one final state with no
transitions out of it.

• Proof: (by induction on the number of operators, denoted by OP(r), in r).

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Basis: OP(r) = 0

Then r is either Ø, ε, or a, for some symbol a in Σ

For Ø:

q0 qf

For ε:

qf

For a:

a
q0 qf
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Inductive Hypothesis: Suppose there exists a k  0 such that for any regular
expression r where 0  OP(r)  k, there exists an NFA-ε such that L(M) = L(r).
Furthermore, suppose that M has exactly one final state.

Inductive Step: Let r be a regular expression with k + 1 operators (OP(r) = k + 1),

where k + 1 >= 1.

Case 1) r = r1 + r2

Since OP(r) = k +1, it follows that 0<= OP(r1), OP(r2) <= k. By the inductive
hypothesis there exist NFA-ε machines M1 and M2 such that L(M1) = L(r1) and
L(M2) = L(r2). Furthermore, both M1 and M2 have exactly one final state.

Construct M as:

ε q1 M1 f1 ε
q0 qf
ε ε
q2 M2 f2
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Case 2) r = r1r2

Since OP(r) = k+1, it follows that 0<= OP(r1), OP(r2) <= k. By the inductive hypothesis there
exist NFA-ε machines M1 and M2 such that L(M1) = L(r1) and L(M2) = L(r2). Furthermore,
both M1 and M2 have exactly one final state.

Construct M as:
ε
q1 M1 f1 q2 M2 f2

Case 3) r = r1*

Since OP(r) = k+1, it follows that 0<= OP(r1) <= k. By the inductive hypothesis there exists
an NFA-ε machine M1 such that L(M1) = L(r1). Furthermore, M1 has exactly one final state.

ε
Construct M as:

q0 ε q1 M1 f1 ε qf

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ε
• Example:

r = 0(0+1)*

r = r 1 r2

r1 = 0

r2 = (0+1)*

r2 = r3 * 1
q0 q1
r3 = 0+1

r3 = r4 + r 5

r4 = 0

r5 = 1
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• Example:

r = 0(0+1)*

r = r 1 r2

r1 = 0

r2 = (0+1)*

r2 = r3 * 1
q0 q1
r3 = 0+1

q2 0
r3 = r4 + r 5
q3

r4 = 0

r5 = 1
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• Example:

r = 0(0+1)*

r = r 1 r2

r1 = 0

r2 = (0+1)*

r2 = r3 * 1
ε q0 q1 ε

r3 = 0+1 q4 q5
ε q2 0 q3 ε
r 3 = r 4 + r5

r4 = 0

r5 = 1
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• Example:

r = 0(0+1)*

r = r 1 r2

r1 = 0

r2 = (0+1)* ε

r 2 = r3 * 1
ε q0 q1 ε
q6 ε q4 q5 ε qf
r3 = 0+1
ε q2 0 q3 ε
r3 = r4 + r 5

r4 = 0 ε

r5 = 1
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• Example:

r = 0(0+1)*

q8 0 q9
r = r 1 r2

r1 = 0

r2 = (0+1)* ε

r2 = r3 * 1
ε q0 q1 ε
q6 ε q4 q5 ε qf
r3 = 0+1
ε q2 0 q3 ε
r3 = r4 + r 5

r4 = 0 ε

r5 = 1
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• Example:

r = 0(0+1)*

q8 0 q9
r = r 1 r2

r1 = 0
ε
r2 = (0+1)* ε

r2 = r3 * 1
ε q0 q1 ε
q6 ε q4 q5 ε qf
r3 = 0+1
ε q2 0 q3 ε
r3 = r4 + r 5

r4 = 0 ε

r5 = 1
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 Definitions Required to Convert a DFA
to a Regular Expression

• Let M = (Q, Σ, δ, q1, F) be a DFA with state set Q = {q1, q2, …, qn}, and
define:

Ri,j = { x | x is in Σ* and δ(qi,x) = qj}

Ri,j is the set of all strings that define a path in M from qi to qj.

• Note that states have been numbered starting at 1!

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• Example:

1
q2 q4
0
0 1

q1
0
1

0
1 q3 q5
1

R2,3 = {0, 001, 00101, 011, …}

R1,4 = {01, 00101, …}
R3,3 = {11, 100, …}

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• Another definition:

Rki,j = { x | x is in Σ* and δ(qi,x) = qj, and for no u where 1  |u| < |x| and
x = uv is it the case that δ(qi,u) = qp where p>k}

• In words: Rki,j is the set of all strings that define a path in M from qi to qj but
that pass through no state numbered greater than k. Note that it may be that
i>k or j>k.

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• Example:
1
q2 q4
0
0 1

q1
0
1

0
1 q3 q5
1

R42,3 = {0, 1000, 011, …} R12,3 = {0}

111 is not in R42,3 111 is not in R12,3

101 is not in R12,3

R52,3 = R2,3

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• Obeservations:

1) Rni,j = Ri,j

2) Rk-1i,j is a subset of Rki,j

3) L(M) =  Rn1,q =  R1,q

qF qF

{a |  ( qi , a )  q j } i j
4) R i,j =
0 
{a |  ( qi , a )  q j }{ } i  j
Easily computed from the DFA!

5) Rki,j = Rk-1i,k (Rk-1k,k)* Rk-1k,j U Rk-1i,j

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• Notes on 5:

5) Rki,j = Rk-1i,k (Rk-1k,k)* Rk-1k,j U Rk-1i,j

• Consider paths represented by the strings in Rki,j :

qi qj

• IF x is a string in Rki,j then no state numbered > k is passed through when processing x
and either:
– qk is not passed through, i.e., x is in Rk-1i,j
– qk is passed through one or more times, i.e., x is in Rk-1i,k (Rk-1k,k)* Rk-1k,j

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• Lemma 2: Let M = (Q, Σ, δ, q1, F) be a DFA. Then there exists a regular expression r
such that L(M) = L(r).

• Proof:
First we will show (by induction on k) that for all i,j, and k, where 1  i,j  n
and 0  k  n, that there exists a regular expression r such that L(r) = Rki,j .

Basis: k=0

R0i,j contains single symbols, one for each transition from q i to qj, and possibly ε if i=j.

case 1) No transitions from qi to qj and i != j

r0i,j = Ø

case 2) At least one (m  1) transition from qi to qj and i != j

r0i,j = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + am where δ(qi, ap) = qj,

for all 1  p  m

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case 3) No transitions from qi to qj and i = j

r0i,j = ε

case 4) At least one (m  1) transition from qi to qj and i = j

r0i,j = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + am + ε where δ(qi, ap) = qj

for all 1  p  m
Inductive Hypothesis:
Suppose that Rk-1i,j can be represented by the regular expression rk-1i,j for all
1  i,j  n, and some k1.

Inductive Step:
Consider Rki,j = Rk-1i,k (Rk-1k,k)* Rk-1k,j U Rk-1i,j . By the inductive hypothesis there
exist regular expressions rk-1i,k , rk-1k,k , rk-1k,j , and rk-1i,j generating Rk-1i,k , Rk-1k,k ,
Rk-1k,j , and Rk-1i,j , respectively. Thus, if we let

rki,j = rk-1i,k (rk-1k,k)* rk-1k,j + rk-1i,j

then rki,j is a regular expression generating Rki,j ,i.e., L(rki,j) = Rki,j .

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• Finally, if F = {qj1, qj2, …, qjr}, then

rn1,j1 + rn1,j2 + … + rn1,jr

is a regular expression generating L(M).

• Note: not only does this prove that the regular expressions generate the regular
languages, but it also provides an algorithm for computing it!

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• Example:

1
First table column is
q1 0 1 computed from the
q2 q3
DFA.
0 0/1

k=0 k=1 k=2

rk1,1 ε
rk1,2 0
rk1,3 1
rk2,1 0
rk2,2 ε
rk2,3 1
rk3,1 Ø
rk3,2 0+1
rk3,3 ε 26
• All remaining columns are computed from the previous column using the
formula.

r12,3 = r02,1 (r01,1 )* r01,3 + r02,3

= 0 (ε)* 1 + 1
= 01 + 1

k=0 k=1 k=2

rk1,1 ε ε
rk1,2 0 0
rk1,3 1 1
rk2,1 0 0
rk2,2 ε ε + 00
rk2,3 1 1 + 01
rk3,1 Ø Ø
rk3,2 0+1 0+1
rk3,3 ε ε
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r21,3 = r11,2 (r12,2 )* r12,3 + r11,3
= 0 (ε + 00)* (1 + 01) + 1
= 0*1

k=0 k=1 k=2

rk1,1 ε ε (00)*
rk1,2 0 0 0(00)*
rk1,3 1 1 0*1
rk2,1 0 0 0(00)*
rk2,2 ε ε + 00 (00)*
rk2,3 1 1 + 01 0*1
rk3,1 Ø Ø (0 + 1)(00)*0
rk3,2 0+1 0+1 (0 + 1)(00)*
rk3,3 ε ε ε + (0 + 1)0*1
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• To complete the regular expression, we compute:

r31,2 + r31,3

k=0 k=1 k=2

rk1,1 ε ε (00)*
rk1,2 0 0 0(00)*
rk1,3 1 1 0*1
rk2,1 0 0 0(00)*
rk2,2 ε ε + 00 (00)*
rk2,3 1 1 + 01 0*1
rk3,1 Ø Ø (0 + 1)(00)*0
rk3,2 0+1 0+1 (0 + 1)(00)*
rk3,3 ε ε ε + (0 + 1)0*1

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• Theorem: Let L be a language. Then there exists an a regular expression r
such that L = L(r) if and only if there exits a DFA M such that L = L(M).

• Proof:

(if) Suppose there exists a DFA M such that L = L(M). Then by Lemma 2
there exists a regular expression r such that L = L(r).

(only if) Suppose there exists a regular expression r such that L = L(r). Then
by Lemma 1 there exists a DFA M such that L = L(M). 

• Corollary: The regular expressions define the regular languages.

• Note: The conversion from a regular expression to a DFA and a program

accepting L(r) is now complete, and fully automated!

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