Drying: Principles of Drying

The real trick to drying ceramic ware is to use a

method that removes the water from the inside of the
ceramic as fast as the surface water is evaporated.
• A conventional tunnel dryer used for drying whitewares. (Photo courtesy of
Eisenmann Corp.)
•
• In this day of wonderful technological achievements and automatic devices for
drying, it can be difficult to remember what it is we are trying to accomplish.
We must not forget that the point of drying is simply to remove water from the
ceramic without causing any damage. Of course, this process must be done
both efficiently and economically.
• No matter what kind of drying we do—whether basic air drying or
sophisticated electronic drying—water can only leave the surface of the
ceramic at a given rate. The real trick to drying is to use a method that removes
the water from the inside of the ceramic as fast as that surface water is
evaporated. To accomplish this process, we must first understand 1) the factors
that control how quickly the water can leave the surface, and 2) the factors
that control how quickly the water can move from the inside of the piece to
the surface. Understanding these principles will then enable us to make
informed decisions about the type of dryer we purchase for our facility.
A conventional tunnel dryer used for drying whitewares. (Photo courtesy of Eisenmann Corp.)

In this day of wonderful technological achievements and automatic devices for drying, it can be
difficult to remember what it is we are trying to accomplish. We must not forget that the point
of drying is simply to remove water from the ceramic without causing any damage. Of course,
this process must be done both efficiently and economically.
No matter what kind of drying we do—whether basic air drying or sophisticated electronic
drying—water can only leave the surface of the ceramic at a given rate. The real trick to drying
is to use a method that removes the water from the inside of the ceramic as fast as that
surface water is evaporated. To accomplish this process, we must first understand 1) the
factors that control how quickly the water can leave the surface, and 2) the factors that control
how quickly the water can move from the inside of the piece to the surface. Understanding
these principles will then enable us to make informed decisions about the type of dryer we
purchase for our facility.
 How Quickly Does Water Leave the Surface?
• Water from the surface of a piece of ceramic cannot move into the surrounding air any faster than it
would from a pool of standing water. Fortunately, that speed was determined for us at about the turn of
the last century by Willis Carrier, the man who invented air conditioning. The heating, ventilating and air
conditioning (HVAC) industry uses the following equation derived from Carrier’s work to establish the
maximum rate of evaporation from a pool of water:
•lb water/sq ft of surface area/hr = k(1+200/V)(W 0–WRH)
• where k is a constant for the particular situation (often taken as 0.192) and V is the perpendicular air
velocity in feet per minute. Omega saturated (W 0) is the partial pressure of water vapor in fully saturated
air at the given temperature in inches mercury, and Omega relative humidity (W RH) is the percent of
saturation as denoted by the percent relative humidity. These numbers are well known and are available
in standard tables.1
• The equation says that at a given air velocity and a given temperature, only so many pounds of water can
be removed per hour for each square foot of exposed surface area. The means that no matter what we
change inside the piece, the water can still only leave the surface at some fixed rate. However, at high
temperatures or high air velocities, this rate can be quite high. In fact, even in an open manufacturing
room with low humidity, the speed of surface drying is so fast that even a gentle air movement is enough
to cause pieces to warp before they are put into a dryer. For this reason, many manufacturers cover their
ware with plastic immediately after forming to avoid having it dry too quickly on one surface. Drying one
surface faster than another will cause that surface to shrink faster than the other side. This shrinkage
causes a difference in movement often seen as a warp or crack. (See “Understanding Shrinkage” sidebar.)
Even a piece that looks fine after drying can have hairline cracks that may not be visible until after the
piece is fired. This defect, often mistaken for firing cracks (preheating cracks), can be prevented by drying
on all sides evenly and by drying the surface no faster than the surface water can be replaced from the
inside of the piece.
A self-contained conventional dryer.
(Photo courtesy of Ceramic Services,
Inc.)
 How Quickly Does Water Move to the Surface?
• The answer to how fast water moves from the inside of a piece to the outside is very complicated. We know that a mix of
materials with larger diameter capillaries will allow faster water movement than smaller diameter capillaries. We also
know that warmer water has lower viscosity than cooler water, so it will effectively be “thinner” and move more easily
through the capillaries, or pores, inside the ware. But how can these principles be applied to ensure perfect drying?
• Raising the temperature of the inside of the piece will allow the water to move a little more quickly to the surface by
lowering the viscosity of the water (i.e., the “thinner” water moves through the pores of the ware more easily). However,
the temperature must be carefully controlled. If the water turns into steam, it might move from the surface more quickly,
but the expansion of the water to steam could cause internal damage to the ware.
• Of course, steam does not always harm a ceramic body. Some mixes are very “forgiving” and dry easily. In other
formulations, adding grog to the body can enhance the drying process by enlarging the capillaries to allow the water to
pass more easily from the inside to the outside of the ware. Any steam formed in these types of pieces can escape almost
instantaneously without damaging the ware. In other cases, the green strength of the body is high enough that the
expanding steam can be contained without harming the bond. However, these examples are all exceptions to the norm.
The formation of steam during drying will damage most body formulations, and should therefore be avoided through
carefully controlled drying whenever possible.
• Heat can be applied to a drying ceramic to raise the temperature of the inside water and make it migrate to the surface
more easily, but it must not be applied too soon in the drying process. If the ceramic is too wet, the water will be removed
from the surface of the ware faster than it can migrate from the inside of the ware to the surface, as explained previously.
On the other hand, a piece that does not contain much water going into the drying stage can be dried faster—with heat—
and without much risk of damage. How much water a piece contains depends on its body formulation and on how it was
formed. For example, dry pressed ware has very little water (approximately 5-6%) and can dry quite quickly. Ceramics that
do not contain a lot of clay can also be safely dried faster than their clay-laden counterparts, which will shrink significantly
during the drying process. (See “ Determining Water Content” sidebar.)
• In any case, the secret to good drying is to drive the water from the center of the piece to the outside surface and then
remove it as fast as it gets there—not simply to remove the water as fast as possible from the surface.
• A hybrid RF/convection heating system.
(Photo courtesy of Radio Frequency
Co., Inc.)
 Drying Methods
• Once we understand how the drying process works, we will then be better equipped to choose the right type of dryer for our facility.
Four basic drying methods are used in the ceramic industry:
• Air drying or open drying
• Air drying in a closed room
• Drying in a conventional dryer
• Microwave and radio frequency (RF) drying
• Air drying or open drying is the most inconsistent form of drying and is mainly used by small facilities and studios. In this form of
drying, products are placed on shelves in the manufacturing facility and allowed to air dry. In some cases, the products are set on
the ground outside and allowed to dry in the sun. Aside from the great lengths of time that this drying process requires, many
products are often damaged due to the inability to control drying conditions.
• Many of the manufacturers that once air-dried their products have “upgraded” to a closed room reserved specifically for this
purpose. In reality, a closed room provides little improvement over air drying. Although confining the products in one indoor room
provides slightly more control over the climate, conditions are still largely unregulated, and numerous losses still result.
• For many ceramic facilities, a conventional dryer provides sufficient speed and control to ensure thorough, efficient drying. The
conventional dryer is either a stationary enclosed room or a continuously moving platform through an enclosed room, in which the
speed and direction of the air can be controlled. In some cases, the dryer is nothing more than a series of heaters placed so that the
product passes by them. In other cases, the dryer provides very large movements of air with a series of increasing temperatures,
and many of today’s models offer programmable control over both the temperature and relative humidity of the air. (See the “More
About Conventional Dryers” sidebar.)
• More recently, microwave and RF dryers have also been put into service. These dryers work by sending electromagnetic energy to
the water molecules inside the ware. The ceramic is transparent to these waves of energy, so all of the water inside the piece is
affected. Radio frequency dryers operate on a different frequency than microwave dryers and are able to evenly excite all of the
water molecules throughout the ceramic, so that the water migrates from the inside to the outside at a more uniform rate. The
factory space required for an RF dryer is often smaller than the space required for a conventional dryer. And since heating begins
instantaneously throughout the product, the dwell time in an RF dryer is far less than in a conventional dryer. However, their smaller
size also restricts the size of the ware that can be placed in the dryers, limiting them mainly to small components and glass fibers.
There is also a danger that the pieces may heat too much and cause steam or expanding water vapor to harm the piece.
 Selecting a Dryer

• Which dryer you choose depends on your ware. Some manufacturers require several weeks to dry their ware. Others
are able to dry their products completely in 48 hours using a modern conventional dryer, and many have achieved
drying cycles of 24 hours or less.
• For most ceramic products, superior drying results can be obtained in very short periods of time using judicial air
movement, humidity control and temperatures below 120°F. The fastest drying time for a given piece depends on:
• The moisture content of the piece (more moisture will take more time)
• The size and shape of the finished ware (thinner ware dries faster, and smooth shapes dry faster than complex shapes)
• The forming process used
• How difficult the mix is to dry
• Conventional drying with properly controlled air velocity, temperature and relative humidity can be very inexpensive
and is fast enough for many operations. Because of several issues, including the relatively high energy costs involved,
microwave and RF dryers are still practical for only a handful of applications, mostly in the high-tech arena. However,
when speed is of the utmost importance and uniform drying is crucial, the benefits of these systems can easily offset
the extra energy and purchasing costs.
• A dryer is an investment that should benefit your plant over the long run. Evaluate your needs, and request test runs
from potential suppliers. In the end, the dryer that works best with your product—and the supplier that best meets
your needs—is the one you should choose.
• Drying is an important part of any ceramic manufacturing process. Understanding how the drying stage works, and then
choosing the best dryer for your facility and ware requirements, will go a long way toward ensuring a successful,
problem-free manufacturing operation.
 SIDEBAR: Understanding Shrinkage

• Clay has an affinity for water (i.e., water will “cling” to the clay grain and may be rather
difficult to separate from the clay). Not all products contain clay, however, so the study
of drying must include insights into how the water leaves the compacted mass of
ceramic, as well as how the water leaves the individual clay grains.
• When any ceramic is very wet, with or without the presence of clay, the water leaves
the surface very easily. As the ceramic becomes drier, the grains of material shrink
together to fill the space occupied by that water. It is this shrinkage that brings the
danger of damage to the ware during drying. If one side dries more than another and,
hence, shrinks more than the other, the piece will either warp or crack. (If the ceramic is
made of relatively coarse or non-plastic particles particles, enough space may exist
between grains to allow the water to leave without any appreciable shrinkage.)
• As the ceramic continues to dry it finally stops shrinking. However, the “safe point” is
not reached until all the ceramic has stopped shrinking, including the inside.
• Once all shrinkage has stopped, the temperature can be increased to speed the
remaining drying. Adding heat lowers the viscosity of the entrapped water, allowing it to
move more freely through the small spaces until the piece is completely dry.
 SIDEBAR: Determining Water Content

• The amount of water in a piece of ware will affect the success of the drying process. In most
cases, the manufacturer’s knowledge of the water present in the original body formulation
is sufficient to determine the best drying process. However, scientific methods of
determining the water content of a ceramic body also exist.
• To determine water content using a non-destructive method, weigh the piece at the outset
and continue drying until the piece stops losing weight. Subtract the light weight from the
heavy weight, and divide by the light weight to determine the percentage of water in the
piece at the start of the drying process. This method is cumbersome and generally cannot
be used to provide immediate improvements in the production process because of the time
required to complete the tests. However, if the dryer being used is sufficiently modern and
repeatable, the final test results can be used to improve the overall drying process.
• A faster but destructive method of determining water content involves placing pieces of a
known size and weight into a dryer and pulling them out at predetermined intervals. Weigh
the pieces, then grind them to a powder and place the powder under a heat lamp mounted
on a scale. The scale will indicate the percentage of water present in the powder and
therefore in the ceramic body.
 SIDEBAR: More About Conventional Dryers

• Air/airless dryers, infra red dryers, jet dryers, steam dryers, gas-fired
dryers and waste heat dryers are all various types of conventional
dryers. Each type merely emphasizes one of the three forms of drying
(air speed, temperature or humidity) or indicates the energy source
(gas, waste heat, steam, etc.).
• Other types of “conventional” dryers include vacuum dryers, which
use a vacuum in conjunction with a conventional drying system, and
dielectric dryers, which are similar to microwave or RF dryers but
operate at lower frequencies.
• Some manufacturers also use their kilns as dryers; however, this
practice is not recommended. A kiln costs a lot more to operate than
a dryer and can cause a great deal of product losses due to
inefficient/ineffective drying.
Factors to Consider in Ceramic Drying and Firing
• Problems ranging from simple cracking to catastrophic
steam explosions can occur if ceramic products are not
dried uniformly.

Shuttle kiln and load ready for firing

 Ceramic box sagger for calcining
powedered platinum-alumina
catalyst.

Car bottom furnace used for

drying and firing advanced
ceramics.
• Drying is a necessary step in the processing of all ceramic
products and components, whether it takes place as a
separate step or is a preliminary step in the firing process.
Ceramics are made from different combinations of
materials that can be in slurry form or even more liquid, in
the case of slip-cast ware at the start of the fabrication
process. This is true of parts ranging from teacups to large
refractory molds for melting aluminum to refractory
insulation products. All ceramics need to be dried to drive
off the large amounts of liquid that are required to make
the product.
 Potential Problems

• Problems can appear in many forms if drying is not done uniformly. Cracking due to shrinkage can be a major issue,
especially in parts that vary in thickness. All ceramic products also shrink when fired. Drying and pre-firing ceramics
help aid in the amount of shrinkage that occurs to the end product. This is very important in thermal processing; if
ceramic insulation products are not dried or pre-fired, the resulting shrinkage could cause heat loss issues in a
furnace, as well as problems with the end product when it shrinks as heated to the required temperature.
• Catastrophic failure is a possibility if drying is not accomplished properly. Water content can turn to steam if heated
too rapidly, destroying the product and the thermal processing equipment. Catastrophic results can occur to thermal
processing equipment if large ceramic parts are heated too rapidly. This rapid heating can cause a steam explosion,
such as what occurred several years ago in a southern U.S. refractories facility that makes large ceramic blocks and
other industrial ceramic composites. A steam explosion resulted in explosive failure to the load, leading to damage to
the furnace that was so severe that the furnace interior had to be completely replaced.
• Another heat-related ceramic drying process failure occurred with a ceramic armormanufacturer located in the
northeastern U.S. A large car-bottom furnace was loaded with ceramic plates that are manufactured from a
lightweight ceramic product used for bulletproof armor and military helicopter seats and floor plates. The furnace
experienced a thermocouple and process controller failure, which resulted in the furnace heating too rapidly until the
over-temperature thermocouple engaged and shut the furnace down. The furnace sustained no damage. However,
the product was no longer a series of ceramic plates and seats, but a pile of broken parts and rubble.
• At the very least, improper drying can result in the end product cracking and weakening. Again, steam is the culprit
and should be strictly controlled and monitored via temperature and relative humidity of the environment.
 Controlling Humidity and Heat

• The key factors in drying ceramics are humidity and heat. Both are necessary and must be controlled under strict guidelines
to avoid both rapid evaporation and steam. Evaporation and steam can both be allies and enemies of the ceramic product
being dried. The ultimate goal is to dry the ceramics as quickly as possible, especially in a production environment.
• The heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) industry uses the following equation derived from the work of Willis
Carrier, the man who invented air conditioning, to establish the maximum rate of evaporation from a pool of water:
• lb water/sq ft of surface area/hr = k(1+200/V)(W0-WRH)
• In theory, this is the maximum rate at which ceramics should be dried. Most ceramic-formed projects are placed in a
controlled drying room, in which the temperature is set to ambient or elevated slightly, and the preliminary drying is done
by humidity control. Ceramic products can stay in this environment for weeks or even months.
• In practice, most manufacturers need to control all costs, and that means reducing inventory and maximizing throughput
from their facilities while delivering high-quality products. Factors such as material composition, density and shape of the
workpiece, moisture content, and trapped water all need to be considered when designing a proper drying program.
• As noted previously, humidity and temperature are the variables that need to be controlled for successful drying. Whether
drying takes place as a separate process or is a preliminary stage in a firing cycle, air movement can be key to uniform
drying. During the early stages of drying, it is best for the air to be hot, humid and under a slight amount of pressure in order
to flow through the load uniformly. Once the chamber is heated to temperature, forced convection fans inside the chamber
move air through the load, and draft-inducing blowers pull ambient air through the chamber. As the temperature rises, the
air loses some of its humidity, allowing the water content from the load to be taken up by the air. As the cycle progresses,
more water content is absorbed and removed by the air flow until drying is complete and the product is ready for firing.
 Case in Point

• Platinum-alumina catalyst powders were successfully processed in a two-

stage drying/firing procedure at a Mid-Atlantic plant using ceramic box
saggers to contain the powder. The saggers were then loaded into tall,
narrow alloy racks that rolled in and out of a pair of car bottom furnaces.
The configuration of the alloy rack was designed to allow the saggers to
be heated from the sides by the electric heating elements, and to allow
for proper air flow around and through the load.
• Two draft inducers at the roof pull ambient through the load at various
points in the process cycle, especially during the initial stages of the
drying profile, and at the end of the firing cycle to improve throughput.
Not every ceramic product can be dried and fired in one contiguous
cycle, but if it is a possibility, then it should be considered in order to
lower production costs while maximizing output.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE DRYING PROCESS CONTROL IN A CLAY
PRODUCT
PLANT
 INTRODUCTION
Bricks and other clay products are shaped by pressing the clay bodies, which derive
their plasticity from the rheological properties of clay-water mixtures. In this
process the water is added to the raw clay material and blended by
homogenization into a uniformly plastic mass. The necessary pressing or extrusion
process is followed by drying of a green ware, This involves removing the water
again, so that the green products are sufficiently firm for the subsequent
production stages (lunge, 1991). In the process of clay article production, the
energy consumption represents significant cost. A great part of the consumed
energy is used during the process of drying of raw and wet clay products; that is the
motive for optimization and the appropriate control of the drying process, This can
be achieved by ntroduction of the proper control system, which is developed and
implemented corresponding to the results of the analysis of the particular drying
process. The most important among expecting results of this 1575 activity is, of
course, a reduction of energy consumption. All procedures of analysis and the
development of the control system are finally applied to the concrete example of
the drying process, which performs in drying chambers in the largest Slovenian
brickworks (Dolanc and Jovan, 1995; Jovan, et al" 1995).
 Fundamentals and terms
Term drying (Bender and Handle, 1982) in the particular case means the removal of
liquid (water) from a solid clay material. This is performed by introduction of heat,
so that liquid is converted to water vapour and then transported away from a solid
material. Depending on a type of clay the amount of water to be removed from a
material varies between 10 and 40 % by mass. The dried material, according to the
type of clay should contain a residual moisture of 0,5 to 6 % by mass.
In convection the following stages occur consecutively:
• Heat transfer from the air to the ware,
• Phase transformation of water from liquid to
vapour state,
• Transport of water vapour QW'D' from the
surface ofthe green ware,
• Transport ofliquid water in the solid material to
the evaporation horizon.
 Drying normally perfomis in three phases .

• In a fret drvine phase evaporation take place at the surface

of the green product. Capillaries and pores are filled
with water and individual solid items are enveloped
in a moisture film. As the pore water and a moisture film
evaporate an additional moisture component is conveyed
to the surface from the interior of the ware. As the rate of
evaporation at the surface continually exceeds the
amount of moisture replenishment from the interior of the
ware, the evaporation front is displaced and recedes
towards the interior.
Then the so called second dwine phase begins and the drying rate
falls. In this phase the phenomena, described before are
supplemented by two additional processes:

a) Conduction of part of heat transferred from the air to the

green ware surface to the interior ofthe product.
b) Diffusion of water vapour from the interior Of the ware to its
surface.

The larger capillaries and pores dry out first. This requires only
the nonnal temperature-dependent, specific heat evaporation.
The third drying phase is a period
when additional physical sorption
forces have to be overcome in order
to produce further evaporation of
the residual water inherent in a
material. Consequently the specific
heat consumption is increased. The
third phase hardly plays a role during
the drying process of bricks, but it is
mentioned here for sake of
completeness. It does not take place
in a dryer but in a preheating zone of
the tunnel kiln.
 Analysis of the process

The following physical processes determine the drying process:

• Process of evaporation,
• Heat and mass exchange in drying,
• Liquid movement in the capillary porous drying charge.

Understanding the theoretical background of mentioned processes

enables us to determine energy balances in a dryer during a
drying process. Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the
following energy flows occurring in a drying chamber:
• Heat volumes of drying air
a) for the dry air intake QAl
b) for the spent air discharge QA2
• Dissipated energy QD, chiefly from the electrical
energy Eel converted to heat.
• The heat volume introduced by internal heating
QlH , namely by heat exchanger or by direct
combustion of gas or light oil.
• Requirement QH for heating the ware at the
temperature T1 (initial) to h (final).
• Transmission losses Qn via the dryer walls.
• Storage heat QT2 of the walls.
• Storage heat QFofthe drying supports.
 CASE STUDY OF A DRYING PROCESS IN A
CLAY PRODUCT PLANT

As a case study current state and the

suggested improvements in drying process
control are described in this chapter.

Current state
The concerned drying process of the green ware
performs in a chamber dryer that consist of 13
•separated drying units, So-called chambers (Dolanc and Jovan, 199a: Jovan, ez o/.,
1995). Chamber are periodically fed and discharged, drying charge is dried
simultaneously in each chamber. Thus the individual drying process running in each
drying chamber has a nature of a batch process. Before the start of the drying the
chambers are first filled with green ware (file, brick) that is more or tess wet and
contains typically about 20% of water by mass, Drying is then achieved by
introducing of warm air into chambers. Afier the entering the aé is mainmined
inside the dryer in a relatively vigorous state of circulation by the use of
recirculating traveling fans. Consequently an increase of the flow velocities and
•hence the possible improvement of the heat transfer is obtained. The rate of the
air flow introduced into a
•particular chamber is adapted tlimiied) manually by means of electrically driven servo-dampers (valves)
mounted in a main air channel above each chamber. When air enters the drying
chamber, a part of its thermal energy is transmitted to ware products by
convection. Simultaneously air receives a certain amount of moisture from the
ware. Therefore two functions are being carried out by the incoming air:
I. transfer of thermal energy, needed for
evaporation, into the chambers

II. transport of the evaporated water out of the

chambers.
After cooling and absorbing the moisture the air leaves the chamber
through the outlet channel. The entire process of drying takes about 25
hours typically and it is terminated after it is established by inspection that
the material is dry enough to enter the next production phase, called firing.
During the drying process a position of a servo damper is being adjusted
several times according to the fixed prescription, which determines the
positions of the damper along different time intervals.
 Experimental analysis of the drying process

The experimental identification and analysis of the

particular drying process in the first stage include
measurements, performed at the existing drying process.
Several types of experiments, which additionally explain
the properties of the process were also carried out. In a
first place the quantities, relevant for the identification,
and also the place and the time interval of sampling of
those quantities were determined. Of course, the
measurement and experiments had to be carried out in a
way that the process was not interfered (Dolanc and
Jovan, 1995; Jovan, et al., 1995).
 The state and conditions of the green ware products were estimated
considering the properties of outgoing air leaving the particular drying
chamber. Thus all measurements were carried out in an outlet channel,
where outgoing air passes when leaving the particular chamber. The following
parameters of the outgoing air were sampled in a time interval of 20 sec. :

1. Temperature (0C) - symbol T

2. Relative humidity [%] - symbol rh
3. Absolute humidity (mass of water per mass
unit of air) [g/kg] - symbol ahm
4. Velocity of the air in the outlet channel [m/sI symbol
v
5. Position of the damper of the chamber (a
percentage of fully opened position) [%1 symbolpos

According to those quantities the several additional parameters were calculated:

6. Air flow through the particular chamber [m3/s]

- symboljlow
7. Transfer of the water from the chamber into
surroundings per time unit [g/s] - symbol trans
 By means of time integration of the water transfer (trans), a total amount of evaporated
water can be determined. Due to the constant temperature of the incoming air (about
120°C) the total energy consumed for the evaporation is assumed to be proportional to the
total amount of the air that passed the particular chamber during the drying process. The
ratio between the total amount of consumed energy (total amount of the air) and the total
amount of evaporated water is a measure for relative energy consumption of the drying
process. Smaller values of ratio mean more economical process whereas high values are
characteristic for wasteful process. The coefficient can be latter used for comparison and
validation of different operations of drying process. A wide range of sets of different
experiments was performed on different chambers to identify the characteristics of the
drying process. It was noticed, that the temperature of the outgoing air by the elapsed
time rises whereas the humidity decreases. Two reasons are assumed to cause those
effects:

i) decrease of humidity is partly a consequence of faster air flow, what means that air
consequently accepts smaller amount of water vapour and simultaneously the
amount transmitted thermal energy is also smaller.

ii) the second cause is the variation of the state of material, which by the time becomes
more dry, so evaporation loses the intensity.
As it was already mentioned, the incoming air has two functions
• transfer of thermal energy, needed for evaporation, into chambers.
• transfer of the evaporated water out from the chambers into the surroundings.
In general each particular function requires different quantity of the air. However, from
the facts and conclusions we made before we can presume that especially in fmal
periods of drying process a transfer of thermal energy requires far larger quantities of
air as they are simultaneously needed for the transfer of water vapour out from the
chamber. Supplying this large quantity of the air necessarily leads into a thermal looses,
since the air leaving the chamber has high temperature and low humidity.

Apparently it would be very sensible to supply a part of the needed energy in a different
way, say by mounting additional heaters directly into the chambers, that would ensure
the amount of the supplied energy to be greater without an urmecessary increase of
the air flow and accompanying thermal losses. Comprehensive technical interventions
into drying chambers and also into the accompanying systems, that mounting of the
additional heaters would require, are from the several reasons unacceptable. For that
reason we tried to achieve the improvements only by means of introducing a suitable
control system. According to the energy balances in the process of drying it is necessary
to enlarge the part of energy that is used for evaporation QCONV and thus reduce the
"dissipated" part of energy QAD..
 Simplified mathematical model ofthe particular
drying process
Heat transition process and evaporation process in a drying chamber
both strongly depend on climate condition of the local position in a
drying chamber since the rate and the mode of air circulation also vary
by the position in a chamber. Both processes are also strongly time
dependent since the state of drying material by the time changes and
becomes more dry. Thus. an accurate mathematical description of
both processes performing in a drying chamber is not a matter of a
simple calculation and it is almost impossible to obtain.

In order to explain and to prove the proposed measure for reducing

the energy consumption an approximate model of the first drying
phase of the drying process has been made, which simply and clearly
describes the process and still includes its major properties. The
following simplifications are included in the model:
• green ware products that are being dried in a chamber are substituted by a
"quasi-wet“ square-surface,
• air passes the surface in a very thin band above the surface,
• incoming air is absolute dry, without any water content, by constant
temperature,

the temperature of the green ware equals the

boundary value (known as ”wet-bulb temperature ”).
When the air passes over a free wet surface, an evaporation of the water
and a heat transfer from the air to the surface occur simultaneously.
Consequently the temperature of the air decreases and its humidity rises.
Considering the physical laws the temperature profile along the surface for
idealized conditions can be calculated as follows from (I) and (2):
It can be noticed that the final temperature of the
air leaving the wet surface depends on the
velocity of the passing air. If the velocity of the air
is high, the average time that air takes on passing
above the surface is shorter and the amount of
the transferred heat is smaller and consequently
the mentioned fmal temperature is higher.
Conversely, by slowing down the air flow the air
temperature falls, but never under the
temperature of the wet surface of the green ware
Te of course. Relation can be seen on Figure 2.
Since the enthalpy of the air - water vapour
mixture during the process of evaporation remains
constant, the final temperature of the outgoing air
determines the amount of evaporated water and
thus the humidity of output air. Consequently, the
evaporated water flow can be expressed as (3):
The mentioned relations are shown diagrammatically in a relative
units in a Figure 3. The model shows that properties of the
outgoing air can be directly controlled by adapting the air velocity.
"Operation line" marks the operation point, which ensures high
value of output air humidity and thus economical operation on one
hand and acceptable duration of a drying process on the other
hand.
 CLIMATE-CONTROL OF THE DRYING
PROCESS
Considering statements and conclusions already derived, the proposal for the
climate-controlled drying process was given. The applied control system should
adapt the position of the inlet damper in a way that the humidity of the outgoing
waste air remains constant without respect to the water content of the green
ware. Such a way of operation makes it possible to reach economical advantages in
comparison with the previous, so-called classical way of operation without control
system. Decreasing the air flow rate results in a change of a dryer atmosphere, the
air approaches closer to the cooling limit state, by circulating in a dryer for a longer
period. Thus the humidity of the waste outgoing air is risen and its temperature
decreased. According to the given theoretic bases decreasing the flow rate results
in a smaller amount of supplied energy per time unit QA/ but the ratio between
the dissipated energy and supplied energy (4) also becomes smaller.
To achieve the desired function, the control system measures the humidity and
flow rate (velocity) of the waste air in the outlet channel and interactively
adapts the damper in the inlet of the chamber. Each chamber is equipped, of
course, with its own controller.
When becomes impossible to maintain the humidity at the desired value (at the position
of the damper permanently opened more than 50%), the drying process is assumed to
approach gradually the transition to the second drying phase. At that point it becomes
necessary to supply additional amount of energy so that the evaporation can continue in
the horizon inside the material. The damper is then set to the fully opened position and
the economical operation, consequently, is no longer possible. However, due to the
technical properties of the drying chambers this can not be avoided.

Clay products can not be dried as fast as desired, because of their own
shrinkage, stresses occur within the body which can lead to damage or
to complete destruction of the work piece. Thus, when controlling the
humidity of the outgoing air, several technological limitations have to be
taken into the account (Fischer, 1991; Junge, 1993; Rimpel, 1995). They
are commonly represented as boundary lines in the frame of which a
prescribed time curve of the humidity has to lie during the drying
process. During the process of development of a control system, the
identifications of the following static and dynamic relations were carried
out:
 a) static and dynamic relation between the change in position of the
damper and the change of air flow rate,

b) static and dynamic relation between the change of air flow rate and
the change of the humidity of the outgoing waste air.
Control system is of a cascade architecture and includes two control loops. The first
loop controls the humidity of the waste air. Loop consists of a feedforward part -
static relation between the waste air humidity and air flow rate (velocity). This
relation is an approximation and the resulting error is corrected by feed-back part - PI
controller. The output of the control loop is the required flow rate (velocity) and it
represents an input for the second control loop that consists only of a PI controller
and controls the air

flow rate through the chamber by adjusting the position of the inlet damper.
Parameter values of the controllers were adjusted according to the process
identification considering the known adjusting rules. Figure 4 contains the block
diagram of the control system in connection to sensors and actuators.
 According to the mentioned functions the control system
comprises following function blocks:

• PI controller with set point (humidity control),

• Block that includes the approximation of the
inverse static relation between the air flow rate
and the humidity of the outgoing waste air,
• PI controller that adapts the position of the
damper (air flow rate control),
• Actuator - servo damper on the inlet of the
chamber,
• Sensor - combined humidity (and temperature)
transducer, mounted in the outlet channel of the
chamber,
• Sensor - air flow (velocity) transducer, mounted
also in the outlet channel of the chamber.
CERAMIC PRODUCTION AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS

The ceramic industry of Gujarat faces certain

problems related to production, which can be
specified as managerial, financial, marketing
and production inputs. The ceramic production
also creates certain environmental problems.
Among the problems of production inputs the
problem of raw material is the most important
one.
• Raw Material:
Raw material and fuel are the two important inputs of ceramic industry which account
for greater share in the total cost of production. However, majority of the manufacturers
are in the small scale sector, who try to economise on the purchase of raw material by
going for inferior quality raw material, thus affecting the quality of the final product and
the margin of profit. This also happens due to the lack of effective methods or
instruments to measure the quality of raw material. The brokers, agents and
manufacturers of various ceramic products should collectively aim at developing the
industry by improving the quality of the products and enhancing the margin of profit.
Fuel:
Coal is one of the major sources of fuel for ceramic industry in Gujarat which is met
by importing coal from West Bengal, Jharkhand and Chattisgarh. However, the
industry often faces shortage of coal, affecting the production of goods. While
importing coal from the above mentioned states, the industry pays tax to
government, brokerage, railway freight, etc. which makes coal very expensive.
When poor quality coal is received the quantity required increases and results into
more imports and more transport costs. The kilns of coal are more in the units of
crockery, sanitarywares, insulator, etc. Several times, the coal supplied to the
industry is of lower grade and is either rocky or dusty and powdery. Permission for
required quantity is frequently obtained from the Commissioner of Industries but
as against this only 25 to 30 percent of the required quantity is supplied.
• Natural Gas:
Natural gas is a proven source of fuel for ceramic industry in Gujarat. Although there
are many advantages associated with this source of fuel (no wastage in transit,
reliable clean and pollution free), the required quantity is not available and also the
prices frequently fluctuate. 97 Therefore, during the field survey it has been
observed that most of the units have empty gas containers in Morbi and Thangadh.

Skilled Worker:
The industry faces the shortage of skilled workers. In most of the units, it has
been observed that there are no experienced and trained workers and officers
in required number. Thus, with traditional approach and unskilled and
untrained workers, the development of the industry cannot be achieved.

Quality control:
The production process is one of the important aspect of this industry. There are no
trained workers to work and supervise on kilns. In some units owner himself
supervises and manages technical aspects. Machines, tools, kilns, electric power
equipments should be of good quality. Since the size of kilns is small, after the
completion of one cycle it needs to be rested and in the process kiln becomes cool
and loses energy. Kerosene is an initial and a fair need of quality control. With the
help of kerosene, crack or other defect could be found out. Thus kerosene test is
one and the only method in quality control. However, this test is also followed in
few units only. The defects in the products occur during the procedures such as
dust vosage, polish, etc. due to the imperfect cleanliness of mould and waste
product.
• Excise Duty and Sales Tax:
As per the government rule, the industry has to pay excise duty if it exceeds the stipulated tumover. This
government rule discourages industry rather than promotes growth and development. However, this also
encourages manufacturers to adopt illegal means such as underbilling in order to avoid sales tax and
excise duty. The production of certain units exceed the prescribed limit of exemption but they show
additional production in the name of another unit. Another practice is to mark very low price tag on the
packed boxes of ceramic tiles and sell at normal price in the market. This practice is adopted with the
sole objective to avoid sales and excise duty.
Marketing:
Some of the units are marketing their products through local agencies as they do not
have direction, knowledge and transporting facility. In the process, brokers, agents and
traders take undue advantage of the helplessness of the manufacturers. Therefore,
some of the 98 manufacturers, market their products in their own way with
limitations. Thus, there is a lack of systematic efficient network of marketing at local,
national and international level.
Managerial Skill:
It has been observed during the field survey that majority of the industrialists who
have joined in this industry have no sound educational background. Therefore, with
their traditional knowledge and experience they are managing the units with a little
success. They are not aware of the modem machineries, scientific and technological
methods of production and management practices. Thus, there is no enhancement in
the quantity of production, quality of products, expansion of market and the margin of
profit.
• Financial Issues:
In the ceramic industry, the working capital gets accumulated by way of storage of
coal, raw material, installation of new machineries and in some situation, by way of
nonsale of produced goods resulting into financial crisis. This in tum forces
producers to seek loan or advances from brokers and consequently to sell the
goods at much lower prices. This is one kind of exploitation of the industrialists by
the brokers or financiers

• Environmental Issues:
Production, pollution and protection terms are inter-related. The ceramic industry
is no exception to this nexus. It has been observed during the field survey that
some of the units have poor, unhygienic conditions both within their premises and
outside their premises. In most of the units, dusty working environment was found
and also unbearable thermal condition in the kiln department. In colour, dyes and
paint section hazardous chemical spray particles in the air affected the workers
health and working condition. Plant design including exhaust system, sanitary
facilities and overall maintenance of cleanliness was far below the standards set by
the industrial safety, security, health, hygiene and environment regulation acts.
• Dust Exposure:
Airborne dust concentration at various sections of the units is found to be higher
than the recommended TL V in both urban and rural factories. In urban ceramic
units the dust concentrations were higher than the rural units. Apparently, very high
dust concentrations were found in the grinding and glaze spray department.
Airborne dust constitute 25 percent free silica 99 particles which indicate very high
exposure risk affecting the respiratory system of the workers. About 80 percent of
the pmticles in the airbome composition were of respirable size. However, the
workers in the glaze section showed more absorption of lead compared to the
workers of other sections.
• Thermal Exposure:
The workers of rural and small town ceramic units showed lower thermal stress
compared to the workers of urban ceramic units. During summer and monsoon
seasons almost all the NBGT observations exceeded 32° Ceisius which is the
permissible level and recommended by OSHA (1974). In urban and rural units WBGT
levels were obsenredupto54.4° C and 48.8° Celsius respectively. This clearly shows
that Kiln section is found to be very hot and workers over there are exposed to
severe heat and showed low physiological strain. Only 15.5 percent of the workers
showed the pulse rate observations exceeding 120 bpm. WHO (1969) recommended
the standard bpm of 110 for the workers who are exposed to heat. The pulse rate of
the shift workers, exposed to heat during different times did not exceed 11 0 bprn.
• Lead Exposure:
The glaze used in ceramic units contains lead but the levels of it were found to be
low (average lead content - 31.3 hg/grm). The workers in the glaze spray section
showed the absorption of lead compared to the workers of other section. However
the levels of blood lead and urine lead in the exposed workers were found well
within the nmmal range i.e. the average PbB and PbU were found 20.1 hg/1 00 ml
and 100% hg/litre respectively. Despite the long duration of exposure, the lead
burden among the workers remained well within the acceptable dormal range.

• Some Occupational Health Hazards:

The workers engaged in various activities of the ceramic units are prone to certain
health hazards. Among them the most common health hazard is silicosis leading to
tuberculosis which is related to the respirable dust content and free silica content.
The workers who are exposed to free silica for more than 20 years shmved lung
disorders of obstructive and restrictive type. Test values of pulmonary function
were more impaired in the cases of silicoses complicated by tuberculosis. On the
whole, working environment showed dusty conditions and the workers are prone
to high risk of developing silicosis and silico tuberculosis during their working life
span. 100
• Some Environmental Hazards:
• Vmious types of environmental pollutions are generated by ceramic industry resulting into
environmental degradation. Among them land pollution and air pollution are most
hazardous. The quarrying of various raw materials of ceramic industry in and around
Morbi and Thangadh has produced bad land topography with numerous depressions of
different shapes and depths. Some of them are filled with environmentally unfriendly and
non-degradable ceramic waste materials and some of them to collect rain water and await
for accidents to happen and remain mosquito breeding pockets all over. Another misuse
or abuse of land resource is the open storage of raw material creating unhygienic dusty
environment. Air pollution arising out of ceramic production is in the form of suspended
dust particles, aerosol particles, smoke and unbumt particles of fossil fuels, paint and
glaze spray particles and hot air. This kind of air pollution not only affects more severely
the health of ceramic workers but also the other citizens of the town as well as micro
urban climate. Thus, the health hazards of ceramic workers is due to the nature of raw
material, the method of its handling and storage, methods and techniques of production
system, nature of energy resource and micro-environmental degradation.
 Challenges in the Paper Industry
As one of the industries most impacted by the digital age, climate change and shifting
consumer perspectives, needs and behaviors, pulp and paper could not be at a more
critical crossroads. In fact, change brought about by digitalization alone is the most
significant the pulp and paper industry has experienced since it became industrialized.
Here are a few of the most serious challenges pulp and paper manufacturers are facing:

•Global digitalization and the push to go “paperless” –

the primary factor driving industry reinvention and
product innovation.
•The energy-intensive nature of the industry and the
increasing cost of power.
•Rising costs of labor and raw materials.
•Uneven worldwide demand.
•Decreases in global pulp production.
•Turmoil in political and regulatory arenas.
•Change driven by logistics.
•Shifts in consumption behavior.
Despite these challenges, the opportunities side of the equation conveys that the era of paper is nowhere near
ending.

For example, while digital solutions are replacing paper, the packaging sector is currently growing as a direct
consequence of digital media – and this is only one of many interesting industry trends to be leveraged.

Here are few of the opportunities that have pulp and paper manufacturers’ attention:

•Increased demand for ecommerce packaging (smaller unit

packaging meaning more units).
•Emergence of new markets driven by advances in
technology, including logistics and internet-based trade.
•Unmet potential within specific paper markets (e.g. tissue,
specialty paper, hygiene).
•Unmet potential for paper solutions to the address the
needs of specific demographics such as aging populations.
Increased demand for eco-conscious packaging (higher
recycled content, less material).
•Widening choices of raw materials.
•Cost savings via new technologies.
As a result of being at such an evolutionary point in its history, the global
pulp and paper industry is taking a hard look at how it needs to operate
and innovate in order to address challenges, seize opportunities and, from
a big picture perspective, remain relevant, sustainable and profitable.
As manufacturing engineering consultants with wide-ranging experience in
the pulp and paper industry, we know how imperative it is for
manufacturers to increase productivity and efficiency in order to combat
the above challenges and more. We also know how essential it is to have
the ability, agility and capacity to capitalize on available opportunities.
Equally, to do both without comprising quality.
Following are several key approaches for increasing productivity and
operational efficiency, followed by a few links to resources that will provide
you with additional industry insight and new ideas for creating the future
of pulp and paper manufacturing, including specific examples of the
breakthrough thinking that’s been ranked as a high priority for
manufacturers with a strong grasp on industry realities.
 Recommended Key Approaches for Increasing Productivity and Operational
Efficiency
•Performing equipment and process audits, as well as careful studies of the entire production line.
These will include identifying variability sources (e.g. water source levels) and deficiencies (e.g.
damage to controls and/or sensors due to debris accumulation, high temperatures and harsh
chemicals).
•Instituting continuous monitoring.
•Managing interrelated processes in a collaborative space; practicing process integration.
•Combining production optimization and energy efficiency projects to achieve greater results
thanks to the complex and interdependent relationship of these two goals.
•Better leveraging the data from automation systems to help operators make better decisions,
including taking more immediate action to reduce waste.
•Applying process intensification technologies (advanced separations for pulping, bleaching and
black liquor and chemical recovery; as well as modularization).
•Exploring better utilization of waste streams and developing value added bio-products that result
in a more diverse and revenue-enhancing product array.
•Engaging in smarter planning and execution to increase visibility, adapt more quickly and better
manage the unexpected, thus gaining tight control of operations (this includes ensuring schedules
sync with the demands of the supply chain at every point, utilizing assets at optimum levels,
managing discrepancies between delivery forecasts and actual outcomes, etc.).