MODULE TWO

RESEARCH PROBLEM, RESEARCH

HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH DESIGN

Identification and Selection of the Problem, Definition and Statement of the Problem,
Evaluation of the Problem, Criteria and sources for identifying the problem, process of
defining the problem.
Nature, Definition and Characteristics of Good Hypothesis, types of hypothesis. Formulation
and testing of hypothesis

The Design of Research, Meaning, Need, dimensions and process, types of research Design.
 PROBLEM
UNKNOWN

GAP
MULTIPLE
REASONS

KNOWN
 INTRODUCTION
A research problem is a question that researcher
wants to answer or a problem that a researcher
wants to solve
Identification & formulation of a research problem is
the first step of the research process.
Selection of research problem depends on several
factors such as researcher’s
knowledge, skills, interest, expertise, motivation &
creativity with respect to the subject of inquiry.
It is believed that most of the good research studies
need lots of time for selection of a research
problem.
 DEFINITION
 According to Kerlinger, ‘A problem is an interrogative sentence or
statement that asks what relation exists between two or more
variable. The answer to question will provide what is having sought
in the research.
 R.S. Woodworth defines problem as ‘a situation for which we have
no ready & successful response by instinct or by previous acquired
habit. We must find out what to do’, i.e. the solution can be found
out only after an investigation.
 In other words, ‘a research problem is an area of concern where
there is a gap in the knowledge base needed for professional
practices.
 IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH
PROBLEM
 Identification of a research problem is the first & most

important step in research process.

 Generally, a broad area is selected & then a broad topic is delimited
or narrowed down to a specific one- sentence statement of the
problem.
 This step of the research process is considered as the most difficult
& challenging, & need slots of time.

 A research problem may come from several sources:

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
 SOURCES

Observati Decision Academic Daily Field

on Dilemma Experience Experience Situations

Consultat Brain
Reading Research Intuition
ions Storming
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION
 CRITERIA
Researcher͛s Researcher͛s Researcher͛s
INTERNAL
Interest Competence Resources

Importance/
EXTERNAL Researchable Novelty Feasibility Facilities
Urgency

Usefulness
 PROCESS OF
RESEARCH PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION
 MANAGEMENT DECISION PROBLEM
1
DISCUSSION WITH SUBJECT EXPERT
2
REVIEW EXISTING LITERATURE
3
4 ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS

QUALITATIVE SURVEY
5
6 MANAGEMENT RESEARCH PROBLEM
 6 MANAGEMENT RESEARCH PROBLEM

DECISION PROBLEM RESEARCH PROBLEM

What should be done to increase the customer base What is the awareness and purchase intention of
of organic products in domestic market? health conscious consumers for organic products?
How to reduce turnover rates in the BPO sector? What is the impact of shift duties on work
exhaustion and TO intention of workers?
How to increase the delivery process of Widex How does Widex manage its supply chain in India?
hearing aids in India?
Should
Should the
the company continue with existing security ????????????????????
service vendor?
Whom
Whom should
should ICICI
ICICI choose its next MD – Mr.
Mr. ABC or ????????????????????
Mrs. XYZ?
 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
7
RESEARCH QUESTION NEEDS TO BE BROKEN DOWN

CLEARLY DEFINED OBJECTIVES TO BE MET TO SOLVE RESEARCH PROBLEM

 EXAMPLE
Objectives:

1. To study existing organic market:

 To categorize organic products into grains, snacks, herbs, fruits and vegetables
 To estimate demand pattern of each of the above
 To understand marketing strategies of market players
 EXAMPLE
Objectives:

2. Consumer research

1. To study existing customer profile

2. To study potential customers in terms of level of awareness, perception and attitude
 EXAMPLE
Objectives:

3. Opinion survey

1. To assess opinion of experts i.e. doctors, dieticians, chefs etc.

PROBLEM FORMULATION &
STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
1. Identify a broad field or subject
area of interest to you

Ask yourself, ͚What is it

that really interests me
as a professional ?
2. Dissect the broad area into
subareas
3. Select what is of most interest to
you
This is it !
4. Raise research questions

What is it that I want to

find out about in this
subarea?
 4. Raise research questions
Make a list of whatever questions come to your mind relating to
your chosen subarea

Is there any
relation Why do Analysis of
Why does
between stock people lose various
market market and money in the brokers in
fluctuate? currency market? stock market
market
 5. Formulate objectives

To
To find
ascertai
out Main n

To Sub To
determ examin
ine e
6. Assess your objectives
Do I have
technical
expertise to carry
out research?
Do I have
adequate
Can I achieve my
amount of
objectives in
money?
time?
 7. Double check

Do I really have
Am I really
enough
enthusiastic
resources to
about the study?
undertake study?
PROBLEM SOLVING
PROCESS
Solve the following problems

Constant breakdown of machinery

Reduced productivity of shop floor workers

Increased employee absenteeism

Decrease in sales and profit

 What is a hypothesis?

• A hypothesis is a prediction of
some sort regarding the
possible outcomes of a study.
 An example:
Research question:
Does training staff in change management help staff
to cope with change in their organizations?
Hypothesis:
Staff trained in change management copes easily with
change in their organizations.
Explain
This hypothesis predicts that the staffs that undergo
training in change management can easily cope with
changes that might occur in their organizations than
perhaps the staff that have not been trained in
change management.
 Functions of Hypotheses

Hypothesis can provide direction to the research. A hypothesis contains several concepts
which are logically connected or arranged. The interrelationships among the concepts
give a clear answer to the problem under study.
1. Hypothesis can explain all the facts connected with it.
2. Hypothesis helps us to provide direction to the research. A researcher can decide what
data are to be collected for the study on the basis of the hypothesis.
3. Hypothesis prevents us from blind search. Hypothesis helps us to search
only for relevant facts. So it is helping us to save money and time.
5. Hypothesis can place clear and specific goals before the researcher.
6. Hypothesis acts as a guide to collect the relevant data related to the problem.
 Cont.
A hypothesis can suggest the expected
relationships between two or more variables.
If A and B are two variables a hypothesis
states the possible relationship between A and
B. This means that a hypothesis must have
two or more variables and it should reveal
how the variables are related to each other.
 Features of a good hypothesis
1. A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. All the concepts used in
a hypothesis must be clearly defined.
2. A hypothesis must be empirically testable. Concepts which do not
have empirical basis must not be included in a hypothesis.
3. A hypothesis must be specific and precise. The possible
relationships among the variables must be precisely stated in a
hypothesis.
4. A hypothesis should be consistent with known facts.
5. A hypothesis must have a theoretical orientation. A good
hypothesis must be able to support or refute (deny) an existing
theory of social relations.
6. A hypothesis must be clear, definite and stated in a simple
manner.
7. A hypothesis must have reasonable explanation to any problem in
the present state of knowledge.
 Characteristics of a good hypothesis
A good hypothesis should fulfill three
conditions. They are:
1. It must be adequate for its purpose.
2. It must be testable.
3. It must be better than its rivals.
 adequate for its purpose
That is, it must clearly state the conditions, size
or distribution of some variable in terms of
values meaningful to the research task if it a
descriptive hypothesis. If it is an explanatory
hypothesis, it must explain the facts that give
rise to the need for explanation. Therefore,
using the hypothesis, one should be able to
deduce the original problem condition.
 testable
If a hypothesis cannot be testable with the
existing techniques or it defies all the known
physical or psychological laws, then it is not
good.
 better than its rivals

That is it must be able to explain the

phenomenon with more facts and with greater
variety of facts than do others. It is a better
hypothesis if it is simple and if it requires few
condition or assumptions.
 Advantages
1. A hypothesis forces us to think more deeply and
specifically about the possible outcomes of a study.
It enables us to understand what the question
implies and exactly what variables are involved.
2. if one is attempting to build a body of knowledge in
addition to answering a specific question, then
stating hypothesis is a good strategy because it
enables one to make specific predictions based on
prior evidence or theoretical argument.
3. Hypothesis stating helps us to see if we are or are
not investigating a relationship.
 Disadvantages
1. Stating a hypothesis may lead to a bias, either
consciously or unconsciously, on the part of the
researcher. This is because the researcher may be
tempted to arrange the procedures or manipulate the
data in such a way as to bring about a desired outcome.
This depends on the honesty of the researchers.
2. Stating hypothesis may sometimes be unnecessary, or
even inappropriate, in certain research projects of
certain types i.e., descriptive or ethnographic studies.
3. Stating hypothesis may prevent researchers from
noticing other phenomena that might be important to
study.
 Part 2

Types of Hypothesis (3.3.2)

 Directional versus Unidirectional
hypothesis or (Relational
Hypothesis)
• A directional hypothesis is one in which the specific
direction (such as higher, lower, more or less) that a
researcher expects to emerge in a relationship is
indicated. The particular direction expected is based
on what the researcher has found in the literature,
from personal experience, or from the experience of
others.

• Non-directional hypothesis on the other hand does

not make a specific prediction about what direction
the outcome of a study will take.
 Types of Hypotheses
1. Working Hypothesis
2. Scientific Hypothesis
3. Research Hypothesis
4. Descriptive Hypothesis
5. Explanatory Hypothesis
 Working Hypothesis:
It is a preliminary assumption of the research worker about
the research topic. When accurate information regarding
the problem is not available we can develop some
assumptions.
These assumptions help us to design the final research
hypothesis.
For example, a researcher can state a working hypothesis as
'assuring educational school increases the living standard of
a commodity'.
After collecting some data on the sale of that particular
commodity the researcher can develop his research
hypothesis as 'assuring high rates of educational school
increases the living standard of a commodity'.
 Scientific Hypothesis:
It is the hypothesis based on
empirical data.
 Research Hypothesis
It is the statement developed by the
researcher about some social fact.
The researcher wants to test whether the
statement is true or false by collecting and
analyzing relevant data. It forms the
temporary assumptions of the research
worker.
 Descriptive Hypothesis
This is a hypothesis which describes the cause
and effect relationship of a phenomenon.
E.g.:- Group study helps to achieve high
marks in examinations.
Explanatory (Causal) Hypothesis
It explains the happening of a phenomenon.
RESEARCH DESIGN
 WHERE?

WHEN?
WHAT?

RESEARCH
DESIGN
HOW MUCH?
BY WHAT
MEANS?
 Where can the required data be
What is the study about? found?
Where will the study be carried
out?

How will the data be

analyzed?

What will be the sample What technique of data

design? collection will be used?

In what style will the report be

prepared?

Why is the study being made? What type of data is

What periods of time will
required?
study include?
 CATEGORIZATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Research Design

Observational Operational
Sampling Design Design Statistical Design Design

Deals with Conditions under Techniques which

How the data will
methods of which observations will be used to
be analyzed
selecting sample to be made carry out designs
FEATURES OF RESEARCH
DESIGN
It’s a plan specifying sources and types of information

Strategy used to gather and analyze the data

Also includes time and cost of budget

 FEATURES OF GOOD RESEARCH
DESIGN

Flexible Minimizes bias and maximizes reliability of data

Appropriate Gives smallest experimental error

Efficient Yield maximum information

Considers different aspects within limited

Economical
resources
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATED
TO RESEARCH DESIGN
 VARIABLE
A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.

Height Weight Temperature Pressure Time

DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE
DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE

Rainfall Crop Yield

Marks Hours of study

Speed Mileage

Energy Food
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
Quality of seed
Extraneous

Atmosphere

Soil

Fertilizer

Independent
Dependent
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
Independent

Extraneous
??? Dependent
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependent
variable are called as extraneous variables.
 CONFOUNDED RELATIONSHIP
“Whendependent variable is not free from
influence of extraneous variable, the
relation is called confounded relationship.”
CONTROL
 CONTROL

Measure
Effect

Fertilizer X Everything same except fertilizer

Control is used to minimize the effect of extraneous independent variables.

 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an

independent variable to a dependent variable.

EXAMPLE
 The fertilizer will significantly improve productivity of plants.
 There will be significant difference between IQ of males and females.
 The training session will improve performance of workers.
NON EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
INTELLIGENCE

GROUP OF
INDEPENDENT STUDENTS
VARIABLE

SCORE IN DEPENDENT
STATISTICAL TEST VARIABLE
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

USUAL STUDY PROGRAM SPECIAL STUDY PROGRAM

SCORE IN SCORE IN
STATISTICAL TEST STATISTICAL TEST
EXPERIMENTAL NON EXPERIMENTAL

Research in Research in
which which
independent independent
variable is variable is not
manipulated manipulated
 EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL
GROUPS

USUAL STUDY PROGRAM SPECIAL STUDY PROGRAM

CONTROL GROUP EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Group is exposed to usual condition Group is exposed to special condition

 TREATMENTS

FERTILIZER A FERTILIZER B FERTILIZER C

CONDITIONS

CONDITIONS under which groups are put is called as Treatments

 EXPERIMENT
Process of examining truth is called as
‘Experiment’

Comparative
Absolute Experiment
Experiment

Effect of fertilizer X on crop Impact of fertilizer X

yield compared to Y on crop
yield
DIFFERENT RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 EXPERIMENTAL

EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
DESIGN
  Simplest and most loosely structured.

 Objective is to explore and obtain clarity about problem

situation.

EXPLORATORY  Discovery of ideas and insights.

 Flexible in approach.

 Mostly involve qualitative investigation.

 Sample size is not strictly representative.

 TECHNIQUES FOR CONDUCTING EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH:

1. Secondary Resource Analysis:

 Previously collected findings
 Easy to collect and less expensive
 Points out that proposed research is redundant and already made
EXPLORATORY

2. Structured and unstructured observations:

 Exploring problem through observations
 Example: Customer behavior for a window display of a shop
 TECHNIQUES FOR CONDUCTING EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH:

3. Expert Opinion Survey:

 No previous information is available
 Seek help from expert
EXPLORATORY

4. Focus Group Discussion

 Discussion with individuals associated with problem under study
 Carefully selected small set of individuals
  Concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual,
group, situation, problem etc.

 More structured and formal in nature than exploratory

EXAMPLE:

DISCRIPTIVE
Businessman wants to design advertising and promotion campaign
for high end watches

Descriptive Research

Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?

  Narration of facts

 Characteristics concerning individual, group or situation

 Social research comes under this category

DISCRIPTIVE
 CONDUCTING
DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH

DISCRIPTIVE

Cross- Longitudin
Sectional al
DISCRIPTIVE

Cross-
Sectional
  Selection of current subdivision of population and study the nature of
variables.

DISCRIPTIVE  Carried out at a single moment in time

 Applicable for specific period.

EXAMPLE:

Cross-
Sectional Attitude/perception of Americans towards Asian-Americans, pre- and post- 9/11
 Situations in which population is not homogenous
(Religion, Gender, rural-urban etc.)

called as
DISCRIPTIVE

Multiple cross-sectional
studies

May be carried out at May be carried out at

same moment in time different time interval
Cross-
Sectional
called as
Attitude of adult Vs teenage Americans Cohort Analysis
towards Asians post event
examples
Predicting election results
 Group of
Consumers

DISCRIPTIVE

Longitudi
Study of this group over a stretched period of time
(purchase frequency, amount, behavior, pattern, types of products
nal
purchased, medium of purchase etc.)

A study of single sample of the identified population

that is studied over a stretched period of time
 FEATURES:

 Selection of representative panel which represents population.

 Repeated measurement of group.

 Selected sample stays constant over a period of study.

Longitudi
nal
 SALES MANAGER Sales Personnel
(Pepsico India.) 3 Month Training
EXPERIMENTAL

IS IT A GOOD DECISION ??? 20% increase in sales

Sales force from other

Training programme
territories should also be
is effective
sent for same training Conclusion by
Decision
manager
 Sales manager is trying to infer that sales training has
caused increase in sales.

i.e. Training is a Causal Variable and Sales growth is an Effect

Variable
EXPERIMENTAL

::: This may not be true because :::

It may be caused due to:

 Reduction in price of soft drink
 Strike at the competitor’s plant
 Increase in price of competitor’s product
 Reduction in quality of competing product
 Weather conditions etc.
 WHAT IS EXPERIMENT?

“It is used to infer causality.”

 In an experiment, researcher manipulated one or more causal

EXPERIMENTAL
variables (independent variables) and measure its effect on
dependent variables.

 Relation is probabilistic in nature.

 Impossible to prove causality.

 Can only infer cause and effect relationship.

 Experimental
Design

Pre- Quasi- True- Pre-experimental

Statistical
Experimental Experimental Experimental Quasi Experimental

Pre-test-post-
One Shot Case Completely
Time Series test Control No Randomization
Study Randomized
Group

One Group Pre Multiple Time Post-test-only Randomized

test-post test Series Control Group Blocks True-experimental
Statistical

Solomon Four
Static Group Group Latin Square
Randomization

Factorial
 RANDOMIZATION
Suppose you have five chocolates bars and total 8 friends to distribute these 5
chocolates to. Now how you are going to do this so the whole distribution process is
with a minimum of bias?

You may write down names of each of your friends on a separate small piece of paper,
fold all small pieces of papers so no one know what name is on any paper. Then you ask
someone to pick 5 names and give chocolates to first 5 names.

This will remove the bias without hurting any of your friend's feelings.

This is called as Randomization.

 Experimental
Design Do not use randomization
procedure to control
extraneous variable.
Pre- Quasi- True-
Statistical
Experimental Experimental Experimental

Pre-test-post- Completely X O1
One Shot Case Treatment
Time Series(X) and measurement
test Control of effect (O) on
Study dependent Randomized
Groupvariable

Multiple Time Post-test-only Randomized O1 X O2

One Group Pre Measurement
Series before (O1) and
Control Group after (O2) the
Blocks
test-post test Treatment (X)

S
Group 1 – X O1 olomon Four
Static Group Latin Square
Group 2 – O2 Group

O = Measurement
Factorial X = Treatment
 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Data can be "distributed" (spread out) in different ways.

There are many cases where the data tends to be around a central value with no bias left
or right, and it gets close to a "Normal Distribution"
 Experimental
Design

Pre- Quasi- True-

Statistical
Do not use randomizatioEnxperimental Experimental Experimental
procedure to control
extraneous variable. Pre-test-post-
One Shot Case Completely
Study Time Series O1 O2 O3
test Control O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Group Randomized

Post-test-only Randomized
One Group Pre Multiple Time Experimental
Control Group Group : O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Blocks
test-post test Series Control Group : O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8

Solomon Four
Static Group Group Latin Square

O = Measurement
Factorial X = Treatment
 Experimental
Design

Pre- Quasi- True-

Statistical
Experimental Experimental Experimental

One Shot Case Pre-test-post-

Experimental Group : R O1 X O2 Time Series
Study test Control ComplR
eteesley archer is able to
Control Group : O3 O4 Group Randomeizleim
d inate effect of
extraneous variables from
One Group Pre Multiple Time experimental and control
Experimental Group : R test
test-post X O1 Series
Post-test-only Randomized group.
Control Group : O2 Control Group Blocks

Static Group
Experimental Group 1 : R O1 X O2 Solomon Four
Group Latin Square
Control Group 1 : O3 O4
Experimental Group 2 : R X O1
Control Group 2 : O2 R = Randomization
O = Measurement
Factorial X = Treatment
 Experimental
Design
It allows for statistical
control and analysis of
external variable. Pre- Quasi- True-
Statistical
Experimental Experimental Experimental
One Shot Case Pre-test-post-
Used to investigate
Study effect ofTime
oneSeries
independent test Control
variable
Group Completely
on dependent variable. Randomized

Independent Variable
One Group Pre should be nominal
Multiple Time scale
Post-test-only
Randomized
test-post test Series Control Group Blocks
Example:
Measurement of sales for different price level
Solomon Four
Static Group Group Latin Square
Price Level : Low Medium High
Stores : A B C

Use ANOVA technique to measure effect Factorial

 Experimental
Design

Pre- Quasi- True-

Limitation of Completely Randomized Design:
Experimental Extraneous Variables
Experimental are
Experimental Statistical
assumed to be constant

Oneminimize
Shot Caseinfluence of one extraneous Pre-test-pos
t-
Using Randomized Blocks to Completely
Study Time Series test Contro l
variable Randomized
Group

One Group Pre Multiple Time Post-test-only Randomized

test-post test Series Control Group Blocks

Solomon Four
Static Group Group Latin Square

Factorial
 SMALL SIZE

STORES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PRICE LOW MEDIUM HIGH

MEDIUM SIZE

STORES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PRICE MEDIUM HIGH

LOW

LARGE SIZE

STORES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

PRICE
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
 Experimental
Design

Used to separate influence Pre- Quasi-

of 2 Extraneous Variables True-
Statistical
Experimental Experimental Experimental

Example: Sales Would be influenced by 2 extraneous variables.

Pre-test-post-
One Shot Case Completely
Time Series test Control
Study Randomized
Packaging Group
Store Size
One IGroup Pre II Multiple TimIeII Post-test-only Randomized
test-post test Series Control Group Blocks

1 (Small) X1 X2 X3
Solomon Four
2 (Medium) Static
X2 Group X3 X1 Latin Square
Group

3 (Large) X3 X1 X2 Here, X1=Low price, X2=Medium, X3=High

Factorial
 Experimental
Design

Pre- Quasi- True-

Used to measure effectExperimental
of 2 or more independent variable. Experimental Statistical
Experimental

Allows interaction between 2 variables.

One Shot Case Pre-test-pos t- Completely
Study Time Series test Contro l Randomized
Ex. An individual may like mango as well as ice cream but may not like
Group
Mango Ice Cream
One Group PreStores Multiple Time Post-test-only Randomized
test-post test Series Control Group Blocks
Price
Small (B1) Big (B2)
Solomon Four
Low (A1) StatA
ic1GBr1oup A1B2 Group Latin Square

Medium (A2) A2B1 A2B2

High (A3) A3B1 A3B2 Factorial

SUMMARY
• Research Design is a plan specifying sources and types of information

• Categories of research design – Sampling, Observational, Statistical,

operational

• A variable is defined as anything that has a quantity or quality that varies.

• Independent Variable influences change in dependent variable.

• Extraneous Variables - Variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study but may affect the dependent variable

• Control is used to minimize the effect of extraneous independent variables.

• Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable.

• Research in which independent variable is manipulated – Experimental

• Research in which independent variable is not manipulated – Non

Experimental

• Conditions under which groups are put is called as Treatments

• Process of examining truth is called as ‘Experiment’

• Exploratory Design - Objective is to explore and obtain clarity about problem

situation.
• Descriptive Design - Concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual, group, situation, problem etc.

• Cross Sectional - Selection of current subdivision of population and

study the nature of variables.

• Longitudinal - Study of a group over a stretched period of time

• Experiment - It is used to infer causality

• Experimental Design – Pre experimental, Quasi experimental, True

Experimental, Statistical
THANK YOU