Boiling and Condensation

BOILING AND CONDENSATION
• liquid-to-vapor and vapor-to-liquid phase transformations
• depend on the latent heat of vaporization hfg of the fluid and the
surface tension at the liquid–vapor interface, in addition to the
properties of the fluid in each phase.
• a constant temperature and constant pressure process
• it is necessary to maintain some difference between the surface

temperature Ts and Tsat for effective heat transfer.
• Heat transfer coefficients h associated with boiling and condensation
are typically much higher than those encountered in other forms of
convection processes that involve a single phase.
Boiling
1. Principles of Boiling Heat Transfer

2. Regimes of Boiling
3. Boiling Curve – Operating Constraints
4. Factors Affecting Nucleate Boiling
5. Empirical Correlations
* Free Convection Boiling
* Nucleate Boiling
* Maximum Heat Flux in Nucleate Boiling
6. Forced Convection Boiling Mechanism
7. Conduction with Phase Change
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Boiling
Factors affecting Nucleate Boiling
1. Pressure:
Pressure , max allowable heat flux
2. Heating surface characteristics:
Rough surface gives better heat transfer rate.
3. Thermo-mechanical properties of metal:

The properties have effect on bubble size.
4. Mechanical Agitation:
Increased mechanical agitation increases ‘h’
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Empirical Correlations
1. Free Convection Boiling
Low pressure boiling of water
High pressure boiling of water
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2. Nucleate Boiling
Roshenow relation:
Csf
Water-copper 0.013 Water-Ground polished SS 0.0080

Water-Brass 0.0060 Water-mech. polished SS 0.0130
Water-Teflon pitted SS 0.0058
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3. Peak Heat Flux in Nucleate Boiling
4. Stable Film Boiling
If effect of radiation is considered, then
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5. Simplified Correlations
i. Horizontal Surface
ii. Vertical Surface
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iii. Forced convection local boiling inside Vertical Tube:
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Flow regimes and boiling mechanisms for upflow convective boiling in a
vertical tube at moderate wall superheat.
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Local Boiling inside Tube:
Qualitative variation of the heat transfer coefficient h and flow regime with quality
for internal convective boiling in a horizontal tube at moderate wall superheat.
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Definations of some basic terms:
a) Void Fraction ε
q
*x
hL For liquid phase corresponding void fraction

z
hf
AG
AL
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Definations of some basic terms:
b) Volume Fraction ε
q
*x
hL
z
hf For liquid phase corresponding volume fraction
AG
AL
ε is also called as Volumetric vapour Content
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c) Volumetric Quality ε*
d) Quality X*
For Liquid
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e) Mean velocity of Vapour and Liquid
f) Slip factor
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Establish the relationship between Quality X* & Volumetric Quality ε*
Solution:
and
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Prove that Volumetric Quality ε* = Void Fraction ε, when S = 1
Solution:
When S = 1, VG= VL
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Problem:
In a vertical annular flow pattern the thickness of liquid film on the
tube wall is δ. The tube diameter is D. If δ<< D, deduce the expression
for Void Fraction ε.
Solution:
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Problem:
Derive the expression for slip S in terms of void fraction ε and
volumetric fraction ε*
Solution:
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Boiling and Condensation
1. Introduction
2. Condensation: Filmwise and Dropwise
3. Filmwise Condensation Mechanism on a Vertical Plane Surface:

* Assumptions
4. An Expression for the Liquid Film Thickness and the Heat Transfer
Coefficient in Laminar Filmwise Condensation on a Vertical Plate
5. An Expression for Heat Transfer Coefficient in Turbulent Film
6. Condensation of Superheated Vapour
7. The effect of non-condensable Gases and the Vapour Velocity
8. Improvement of ‘h’ in Filmwise Condensation
9. Filmwise Condensation on Horizontal Cylinders- Empirical Relation
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10. Condensation Inside Tubes – Empirical Relation
11. Dropwise Condensation: Merits and Demerits
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Assumptions
1. The condensing liquid would wet the solid surface, spread out and
form a continuous film over the entire condensing surface.
2. This film will flow downward under the action of gravity and its
thickness will increase.
3. This film offer a thermal resistance between vapour and the surface
and would reduce ‘h’.
4. Flow in the film is laminar.
5. No shear stress at the liquid vapour interface.
6. Linear temperature profile.
7. The weight of the liquid film would be balanced by the viscous shear
in the liquid film and the buoyant force due to the displaced vapour.
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x Tg >Ts
Tg
Ts
dx
dx
y δ-y
δ
vg(δ-y)dx
g(δ-y)dx
Tg
Ts
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4. An Expression for the Liquid Film Thickness and the Heat
Transfer Coefficient in Laminar Filmwise Condensation on a
Vertical Plate
dx
Let us choose a small element as shown in fig.
δ-y
By making a force balance vg(δ-y)dx

g(δ-y)dx
Weight of the liquid film = the viscous shear in the liquid film
+ buoyant force due to displaced vapour.
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For no-slip condition, at y=0, u=0. Integrating
Mass flow rate of the condensate through the film at any pt x
The rate of heat transfer at the wall in the area dx for unit width
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Thickness of the film increases in the positive x-direction.
The additional mass of vapour will condense between x and x+dx
This additional mass of condensing vapour will release heat energy.

That has to be removed by conduction through the wall.
Thus δ with boundary conditions; x=0, δ=0
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The rate of heat transfer is
The properties of liquid at mean temperature, T=(Tg+Ts)/2
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The Nusselt correlation under predict most experimental results by
approximately 20 %.
McAdams proposed to use value of 1.13 in place of coefficient 0.943.
The above relations are applicable to plane surface inclined at angle θ

with horizontal by replacing ‘g’ by ‘g sinθ’
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5. An Expression for Heat Transfer Coefficient in Turbulent Film
If the vertical surface is sufficiently long such that the liquid film
becomes thick enough to cause transition to turbulent flow.
Condensation film Reynolds Number Re;
From energy balance
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For vertical plate of height L and width W and
For a vertical tube of height L and diameter D
A/P = L
The flow is Turbulent if Re > 1800.
The Kirkbide Relation;
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6. Condensation of Superheated Vapour
The amount of heat removed per kg of condensing superheated vapour is
7. The effect of Non-condensable Gases and the Vapour Velocity

* ‘h’ decreases & varies almost linearly with mass fraction.
* Non condensable gases acts as a thermal resistance.
* Change in vapour velocity give rise to shearing stress at interface.
* For upward vapour flow the thickness of film increases and v. v.v
* At high velocity transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at Re=300.
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8. Improvement of ‘h’ in Filmwise Condensation
* Decreasing the liquid film thickness.

* By inducing turbulence.
-finned tube and rough surfaces

* Extracting non-condensable gases.
December 8, 2018 31
9. Filmwise Condensation on Horizontal Cylinders-
Empirical Relation
The average heat transfer coefficient on out side surface of a
horizontal tube:
All properties at mean film temperature and hfg at saturation temp.

the flow is always laminar.
Vapour condensing on outside surface of sphere the constant will be

0.815 instead of 0.725.
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The average heat transfer coefficient for an Array of N horizontal
tubes placed one above the other:
Relative values of the heat transfer coefficient for horizontal and

vertical tubes:
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10. Condensation Inside Tubes – Empirical Relation
The average heat transfer coefficient for vapours condensing inside

either horizontal or vertical tubes:
For Reg< 5 x 10 4, Nud=5.03(Reg)1/3(Pr)1/3
For Reg > 5 x 10 4, Nud=0.0265(Reg)0.8 (Pr)1/3
Where Regis the Reynolds number defined in terms of the mass

velocity.
11. Dropwise Condensation: Merits and Demerits
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Problem:
A vertical square plate 40 x 40 cm at 70 0C is exposed to saturated
steam at 1 atm pressure. Calculate the film thickness, the maximum
velocity and local heat transfer coefficient at the bottom edge of
plate.
Solution:
At mean film temperature 85 0C :μ= 3.37 x 10 -4 Pa-s, k= 0.674 W/mK,
 = 968 kg/m3
At 1 atm pressure; hfg= 2255 kJ/kgK
The film thickness:
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The maximum velocity at bottom edge:
At y=δ, u = umax
Local heat transfer coefficient at x=0.4 m
Average heat transfer coefficient = hL=(4/3)hx=5.934 kW/m2K
The mass of condensate,

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Boiling
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BOILING AND CONDENSATION

• liquid-to-vapor and vapor-to-liquid phase transformations

• it is necessary to maintain some difference between the surface

1. Principles of Boiling Heat Transfer

3. Thermo-mechanical properties of metal:

High pressure boiling of water

Water-copper 0.013 Water-Ground polished SS 0.0080

4. Stable Film Boiling

If effect of radiation is considered, then

ii. Vertical Surface

hL For liquid phase corresponding void fraction

hf For liquid phase corresponding volume fraction

3. Filmwise Condensation Mechanism on a Vertical Plane Surface:

By making a force balance vg(δ-y)dx

Mass flow rate of the condensate through the film at any pt x

This additional mass of condensing vapour will release heat energy.

Thus δ with boundary conditions; x=0, δ=0

The properties of liquid at mean temperature, T=(Tg+Ts)/2

The above relations are applicable to plane surface inclined at angle θ

Condensation film Reynolds Number Re;

From energy balance

The flow is Turbulent if Re > 1800.

The Kirkbide Relation;

7. The effect of Non-condensable Gases and the Vapour Velocity

* Decreasing the liquid film thickness.

-finned tube and rough surfaces

All properties at mean film temperature and hfg at saturation temp.

Vapour condensing on outside surface of sphere the constant will be

Relative values of the heat transfer coefficient for horizontal and

The average heat transfer coefficient for vapours condensing inside

Where Regis the Reynolds number defined in terms of the mass

11. Dropwise Condensation: Merits and Demerits

Local heat transfer coefficient at x=0.4 m

Average heat transfer coefficient = hL=(4/3)hx=5.934 kW/m2K

The mass of condensate,

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