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Vertebrate Development: Biology II: Form and Function

This document outlines the key stages of vertebrate development: fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, neurulation, neural crest formation, and organogenesis. It describes the processes that occur at each stage, such as cell division during cleavage and the formation of germ layers during gastrulation. Examples are provided for how these stages differ across vertebrate species, like uneven cleavage in frogs versus meroblastic cleavage in mammals. Later stages involve the formation of the neural tube and induction of tissues. Organogenesis concludes development through differentiation and growth of individual organs.

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160 views41 pages

Vertebrate Development: Biology II: Form and Function

This document outlines the key stages of vertebrate development: fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, neurulation, neural crest formation, and organogenesis. It describes the processes that occur at each stage, such as cell division during cleavage and the formation of germ layers during gastrulation. Examples are provided for how these stages differ across vertebrate species, like uneven cleavage in frogs versus meroblastic cleavage in mammals. Later stages involve the formation of the neural tube and induction of tissues. Organogenesis concludes development through differentiation and growth of individual organs.

Uploaded by

poovenmoonoosamy
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Vertebrate

Development

Biology II:
Form and Function
The six stages of vertebrate development

• Fertilization
• Cleavage
• Gastrulation
• Neurulation
• Neural crest formation
• Organogenesis
Stage of vertebrate
development (I)
Stage of vertebrate
development (II)
Fertilization (I)
• Entry of sperm cell
induces activation
– prevents other
sperm from
entering
– Intitiates second
meiotic division of
egg nucleus
– Induces polarity
Fertilization (II)
Fertilization in sea urchins
Sperm penetration
Polarity in early embryos
Cleavage
• Division of first cell to many within ball of same volume
(morula) is followed by hollowing of that ball to a
blastula. Form of cleavage and blastulation depends
on orientation of yolk and nucleus
– In primitive chordates, division is even, towards a
symmetrical blastula composed of cells of equal
size
– In amphibians, holoblastic cleavage leads to
assymetrical blastula
– In reptiles and birds, meroblastic cleavage occurs,
resulting in a cap of cells on top of the yolk
– In mammals, holoblastic cleavage occurs, creating
a trophoblast containing a blastocoel, with inner
disc of cells equivalent to a blastodisc
Yolk distribution in amniotic eggs
affects blastula development
Holoblastic cleavage

• Cells with little yolk,


and central
nucleus, develop
evenly
Uneven cleavage
• In frog cells, there is
more yolk, and nucleus
of fertilized egg is to
one side:
– Yolk slows division,
so areas of low yolk
content divide
quicker, and create
smaller cells (see
here, front)
– Areas of high yolk
content divide more
slowly, and give rise
to larger cells
Meroblastic cleavage

• Occurring in reptiles, birds and mammals, an uneven


division of cells causes a cap of cells on top of the yolk
Blastula of mammals and birds

• Cap of cells develops into a blastodisc


• Blastocoel develops in mammals, surrounded by
trophoblast
Gastrulation
• Invagination of outer layer of cells to inside of
the blastula is known as gastrulation,
resulting in the formation of the gastrula
• Type of gastrulation is a function of type of
blastula…
• End result is three types of germ layer tissue
- endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm
Gastrulation in the lancelet
Gastrulation in the frog
Gastrulation in birds
Gastrulation in mammals
Neurulation and neural crest formation

• Formation of neural fold (primitive streak) above


notocord, begins a channel that eventually seals on
the dorsal surface, forming neural groove
– Mesoderm derived tissue close to notocord develop
into somites, giving rise to muscles, connective
tissue and vertebrae
• Layer of cells on dorsal surface of groove form neural
crest, responsible for formation of several important
organs
– Associated patches of ectoderm tissue derive into
placodes, which evetually result in important
neurally related organs
Neural tube formation (I)
Neural tube formation (II)
Induction
• Proximity of a cell to certain other cells controls its
development - Spemann and Mangold
• Cells whose fate can be predicted are termed
‘determined’
• Cells whose fate cannot be reversed are termed
‘committed’
• Since all cells initially can become any tissue...
...Development is a process of progressive restriction
of gene expression
Spemann and Mangold’s dorsal
lip transplant experiment
Induction of the vertebrate eye
Organogenesis
• Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny

• (and a quick word about extraembryonic


membranes)
Derivation of major tissue types
Embryonic development of vertebrates (I)
Embryonic development of vertebrates (II)
Extraembryonic membranes - Chick embryo
Extraembryonic membranes -
mammalian embryo (I)
Extraembryonic membranes -
mammalian embryo (II)
The placenta
Human
development
Developing human at 4 weeks
Developing human at 7 weeks
Developing human at 3
months
Developing human at 4
months
Ultrasound at 5 months
Delivery position of foetus

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