Material Studies – STONE 1

Dr. J.A. Mol, Faculty of Archaeology

Discover the world at Leiden University

 Composition of the crust
The most common chemical elements in
the crust are:

• oxygen 46.6 %
• silicon 27.7 %
• aluminum 8.1 %
• calcium 3.6 %
• potassium 2.8 %
• sodium 2.6 %
• magnesium 2.1 %

Fig 12
 Main rock types
1. Igneous rocks – Crystallization of magma (product of tectonic activity)
2. Sedimentary rocks - Weathered products of older rock / organic /precipitate
3. Metamorphic rocks – Deformed rock (by pressure/temperature)
 Rock cycle: from igneous to metamorphic rocks

PRESSURE

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Igneous rocks
During cooling different minerals crystallize, the slower the cooling, the larger
the crystals.
Variations are based on differences in:
• Magma composition
• Pressure (P)
• Temperature (T)  determiner of crystal growth/size
 Rocks are composed of minerals

Inorganic molecules with:

• Distinct chemical composition,
• Crystalline structure, color, and hardness.
During cooling they form crystals which interlock
during growth

Fig 11
At depth, slow
Typesintrusive
cooling: of igneous rocks
At or near surface,
rapid cooling:
extrusive

Fig 14
Igneous rock textures
Determine the origin:
1. Aphanitic: Rapid cooling, no crystals visible with naked eye
2. Glassy: no crystals at all
3. Phaneritic: clearly visible crystals
4. Pegmatitic: extremely large crystals (> 2cm)
5. Porphyritic: both small and large crystals
6. Pyroclastic: lithified volcanic ash and stones (usually poorly compacted)
 Aphanitic texture: volcanic rock

Fig 15
 Aphanetic texture

Volcanic rock (aphanetic texture)

Sometimes with bubbles (gas eruption)
Fig 16
 Glassy texture
Volcanic glass:
minimum crystal growth: cooled too fast to crystallize

Fig 17
 Phaneritic texture
Intrusive rock: all minerals clearly visible

Fig 18
 Pegmatitic rock
Extremely slow cooling, very large crystals (> 2 cm)

Fig 19
 Porphiritic texture

Two cooling stages;

1 mineral slow,
remainder more rapid:

some large crystals

(phenocrysts) in finer
ground mass

Fig 20
 Pyroclastic texture: volcanic SEDIMENTS

Lithification of volcanic debris.

Fig 21
Volcanic ash (tuff) is pyroclastic: Deposited in layers
 Pyroclastic deposits
lithified fragments, usually poorly compacted

Fig 22
 Rocks are composed of minerals

Minerals are characterized by their

• Crystal lattice
• Colour
• Hardness

Fig 23
 Common minerals Can be identified by their colour and cleavage

• Quartz
• Feldspar group: orthoclase and plagioclase
• Muscovite (mica group)
• Biotite (mica-group)
• Amphibole group (e.g. hornblende)
• Pyroxene group (e.g. augite)
• Olivine

Fig 24
 Quartz
• usually clear and white, but can show some color
• no cleavage, but conchoidal fracture (like glass)

Fig 24
 Quartz
In rocks often greyish, but (slightly) transparent

Fig 25
Feldspar group
60% of the Earth crust!

Alkali feldspars, e.g., orthoclase

Potassium feldspars. e.g., plagioclase
 Alkali-feldspar (orthoclase)
white or pink with cubic (rhomboedric) cleavage

Fig 27
 Potassium –feldspar (plagioclase)
Plagioclase: white, rhomboedric, with typical striations (striped)

Fig 28
 Fig 29
Minerals in a rock
Orthoclase: milky white, cubic cleavage

Quartz, transparent-greyish, no cleavage

 Muskovite (mica-group)
Transparent mica,
platy and silver to golden luster (gloss)

Fig 30
 Biotite: dark-brown mica

typically platy and with brown luster

Fig 31
 Biotite (brown mica) in rock

Fig 32
 Amphibole group (hornblende) Fig 33

Amphibole: “black rods” / prisms

hexagonal cleavage, 120o
(diamond -shaped)
 Pyroxene-group (augite)

Pyroxene:
black or dark green ‘rods” / prisms
cubic cleavage, 90o
magnetic
Fig 34
 Fig 35

Olivine

Olivine: Pistachio-green
conchoidal fracture, no cleavage
 All minerals in a row..
Group Mineral Colour appearance

quartz Transparent greyish No cleavage,

Conchoidal fracture
olivine Pistachio-green No cleavage,
Conchoidal fracture
feldspar orthoclase Milky white to pink Clear rhomboedric cleavage
(cubes)
plagioclase White to greenish or yellow rhomboedric cleavage, elongated
+ striations
mica biotite Dark brown strong luster Platy, shiny:
Dark “mirror”
muscovite Transparent golden or silver Platy, shiny:
luster “light coloured mirror”
amfibole hornblende Black with slight luster Diamond-shaped prisms with
angle of 120o
pyroxene augite Black to green luster Cubic prisms (90o), magnetic
Classification igneous rocks

Two types:

• felsic rock: continental

Much quartz and feldspar: light in colour and weight
• mafic rock: oceanic
Little quartz, rich in iron: heavy and dark
Classification

Based on mineral content

1. Is the rock igneous

2. What is the rock texture?
3. Which minerals does it contain
 Classification

feldspathoïd

plagioclase

amphibole
orthoclase

muscovite

pyroxene
quartz

biotite
Intrusive extrusive
granite rhyolite ++ ++ + o o o
syenite trachyte ++ + o o o
nepheline-syenite***phonolite ++ ++
monzonite latite ++ ++ ++ + + o ++ many
tonalite dacite ++ + + o + few
diorite andesite ++ + + o o traces
gabbro basalt ++ o +
 Classification

Fig 36
 Granite: felsic rock (continental)

Quartz > 20% Orthoclase >> Plagioclase

Dark minerals < 10%

Fig 37
 Colour variations in granite

Fig 38
 Rhyolite: volcanic variant of granite

Fig 39
 Diorite: intermediate rock

• Plagioclase and amphibole

(50/50)
• Quartz: almost absent
• Not magnetic

Fig 40
 Andesite: volcanic variant of diorite

Fig 41
 Gabbro: mafic (oceanic)

• plagioclase & pyroxene

(50/50)
• Often amphiboles
• Occasionally olivine
sometimes
• Magnetic
• Can have olivine

Fig 41
Basalt: volcanic variant of gabbro

With or without
cavities (= gas bubbles)
Table to use

feldspathoid

plagioclase

amphibole
orthoclase

muscovite

pyroxene
biotite
quartz
plutonic rock volcanic variant
granite rhyolite ++ ++ + o o o
syenite trachite ++ + o o o
monzonite latite ++ ++ ++ + + o
diorite andesite o ++ + + o
gabbro basalt + o ++
++ many
+ few
o sporadic
 Assignment for today
Read the text in the reader on plate tectonics and igneous rocks (inclusing classification)
(you need this to prepare for the practical)

Make the 2 blackboard tests (20 multiple choice questions each):

• Assignment 1= about tectonics
• Assignment 2 = about the classification of rocks

Note: test can be made together and as many times as you like.
IT IS JUST A PRACTICE