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0-13-191835-4
Signal Encoding Techniques
Chapter 6
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4
Reasons for Choosing
Encoding Techniques
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment less complex and expensive
than digital-to-analog modulation
equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Permits use of modern digital transmission
and switching equipment
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Reasons for Choosing
Encoding Techniques
Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only
propagate analog signals
E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data in electrical form can be
transmitted easily and cheaply
Done with voice transmission over voice-
grade lines
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Signal Encoding Criteria
What determines how successful a receiver
will be in interpreting an incoming signal?
Signal-to-noise ratio
Data rate
Bandwidth
An increase in data rate increases bit error
rate
An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase
in data rate
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Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal spectrum
With lack of high-frequency components, less
bandwidth required
With no dc component, ac coupling via
transformer possible
Transfer function of a channel is worse near band
edges
Clocking
Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
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Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
Signal interference and noise immunity
Performance in the presence of noise
Cost and complexity
The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data
rate, the greater the cost
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Basic Encoding Techniques
Digital data to analog signal
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
Frequency difference near carrier frequency
Phase-shift keying (PSK)
Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
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Amplitude-Shift Keying
One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier
ï A cos(2pf c t )
ì binary 1
s (t ) = í
ï
î 0 binary 0
where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)
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Amplitude-Shift Keying
Susceptible to sudden gain changes
Inefficient modulation technique
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200
bps
Used to transmit digital data over
optical fiber
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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Two binary digits represented by two
different frequencies near the carrier
frequency
ï A cos(2pf1t )
ì binary 1
s (t ) = í
î A cos(2pf 2t )
ï binary 0
where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by
equal but opposite amounts
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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
Less susceptible to error than ASK
On voice-grade lines, used up to
1200bps
Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
radio transmission
Can be used at higher frequencies on
LANs that use coaxial cable
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
More than two frequencies are used
More bandwidth efficient but more
susceptible to error
si (t ) = A cos 2pf i t 1£ i £ M
f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
To match data rate of input bit
stream, each output signal element is
held for:
Ts=LT seconds
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
So, one signal element encodes L bits
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
Minimum frequency separation required
2fd=1/Ts
Therefore, modulator requires a
bandwidth of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
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Multiple Frequency-Shift
Keying (MFSK)
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Two-level PSK (BPSK)
Uses two phases to represent binary digits
ï A cos(2pf c t )
ì binary 1
s (t ) = í
ï
î A cos (2pf c t + p ) binary 0
ïA cos(2pf c t )
ì binary 1
=í
ï
î- A cos (2p f c t ) binary 0
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Differential PSK (DPSK)
Phase shift with reference to previous bit
Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as
previous signal burst
Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to
previous signal burst
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Four-level PSK (QPSK)
Each element represents more than one bit
æ pö
A cosç 2pf c t + ÷
ì è 4ø
11
ïï æ 3p ö
A cosç 2pf c t + ÷
s (t ) = í
01
è 4 ø
æ 3p ö
A cosç 2pf c t - ÷
ï
00
è 4 ø
ïî æ pö
A cosç 2pf c t - ÷ 10
è 4ø
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Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Multilevel PSK
Using multiple phase angles with each angle
having more than one amplitude, multiple
signals elements can be achieved
R R
D= =
L log 2 M
D = modulation rate, baud
R = data rate, bps
M = number of different signal elements = 2L
L = number of bits per signal element
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Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
ASK, PSK BT=(1+r)R
FSK BT=2DF+(1+r)R
R = bit rate
0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
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Performance
Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
æ1+ r ö æ 1+ r ö
MPSK
BT = ç ÷ R = çç ÷÷ R
è L ø è log 2 M ø
MFSK æ (1 + r )M ö
BT = çç ÷÷ R
è log 2 M ø
L = number of bits encoded per signal element
M = number of different signal elements
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Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
Two different signals sent simultaneously
on the same carrier frequency
s(t )= d1 (t )cos 2pf ct + d 2 (t )sin 2pf ct
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
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Reasons for Analog
Modulation
Modulation of digital signals
When only analog transmission facilities
are available, digital to analog conversion
required
Modulation of analog signals
A higher frequency may be needed for
effective transmission
Modulation permits frequency division
multiplexing
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Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to analog signal
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)
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Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
s(t )= [1+ na x(t )]cos 2pf ct
cos2fct = carrier
x(t) = input signal
na = modulation index
Ratio of amplitude of input signal to carrier
a.k.a double sideband transmitted carrier
(DSBTC)
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Spectrum of AM signal
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Amplitude Modulation
Transmitted power
æ na 2 ö
Pt = Pc çç1 + ÷
÷
è 2 ø
Pt = total transmitted power in s(t)
Pc = transmitted power in carrier
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Single Sideband (SSB)
Variant of AM is single sideband (SSB)
Sends only one sideband
Eliminates other sideband and carrier
Advantages
Only half the bandwidth is required
Less power is required
Disadvantages
Suppressed carrier can’t be used for
synchronization purposes
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Angle Modulation
Angle modulation
s(t )= Ac cos[2pf ct + f (t )]
Phase modulation
Phase is proportional to modulating
signal
f (t )= n p m(t )
np = phase modulation index
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Angle Modulation
Frequency modulation
Derivative of the phase is proportional to
modulating signal
f ' (t )= n f m(t )
nf = frequency modulation index
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Angle Modulation
Compared to AM, FM and PM result in a
signal whose bandwidth:
is also centered at fc
but has a magnitude that is much different
Angle modulation includes cos( (t)) which
produces a wide range of frequencies
Thus, FM and PM require greater
bandwidth than AM
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4
Angle Modulation
Carson’s rule
BT = 2(b + 1)B
where
ì n p Am
ï for PM
b = í DF n f Am
ïî B = 2pB for FM
The formula for FM becomes
BT = 2DF + 2B
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4
Basic Encoding Techniques
Analog data to digital signal
Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Delta modulation (DM)
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4
Analog Data to Digital Signal
Once analog data have been converted
to digital signals, the digital data:
can be transmitted using NRZ-L
can be encoded as a digital signal using a
code other than NRZ-L
can be converted to an analog signal,
using previously discussed techniques
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Pulse Code Modulation
Based on the sampling theorem
Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
The digital signal consists of block of n
bits, where each n-bit number is the
amplitude of a PCM pulse
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Example
Pulse Code Modulation
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PCM Block Diagram
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Pulse Code Modulation
By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is
only approximated
Leads to quantizing noise
Signal-to-noise ratio for quantizing noise
SNR dB = 20 log 2n + 1.76 dB = 6.02n + 1.76 dB
Thus, each additional bit increases SNR by 6
dB, or a factor of 4
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4
Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by
staircase function
Moves up or down by one quantization
level () at each sampling interval
The bit stream approximates derivative
of analog signal (rather than amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up
0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
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Delta Modulation
Two important parameters
Size of step assigned to each binary digit ()
Sampling rate
Accuracy improved by increasing sampling
rate
However, this increases the data rate
Advantage of DM over PCM is the simplicity of
its implementation
Stallings, Wireless Communications & Networks, Second Edition, © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-191835-4
Reasons for Growth of Digital
Techniques
Growth in popularity of digital
techniques for sending analog data
Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
No additive noise
TDM is used instead of FDM
No intermodulation noise
Conversion to digital signaling allows use
of more efficient digital switching
techniques
