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07 - First Order Logic

First-order logic (FOL) extends propositional logic by adding quantifiers and terms to represent objects, properties, relations, and functions. FOL allows modeling of more complex relationships than propositional logic. The syntax of FOL defines terms, predicates, functions and quantifiers. The semantics maps sentences in FOL to facts in the world. Inference uses rules of propositional logic plus rules for quantifiers like universal and existential instantiation and generalization. An example problem demonstrates using FOL to show that a marriage is invalid based on relationships between individuals.

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165 views20 pages

07 - First Order Logic

First-order logic (FOL) extends propositional logic by adding quantifiers and terms to represent objects, properties, relations, and functions. FOL allows modeling of more complex relationships than propositional logic. The syntax of FOL defines terms, predicates, functions and quantifiers. The semantics maps sentences in FOL to facts in the world. Inference uses rules of propositional logic plus rules for quantifiers like universal and existential instantiation and generalization. An example problem demonstrates using FOL to show that a marriage is invalid based on relationships between individuals.

Uploaded by

andi adit fathurrahman
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Artificial Intelligence

First Order Logic

1 10/30/2018
Five types of Logic
Type of knowledge
Type of logic Reference to real world
known by Agent

Propositional Logic Facts True / False / Unknown

First-order Logic Facts, Object, Relation True / False / Unknown

Temporal Logic Facts, Object, Relation, Time True / False / Unknown

Degree of belief [0, 1]


Probability Theory Facts
(certainty factor)
Truth values Confidence level [0, 1]
Fuzzy Logic
(degree of truth) (certainty factor)

2 10/30/2018
Representation, reasoning, and logic
The object of knowledge representation is to express
knowledge in a computer-tractable form, so that agents can
perform well.

A knowledge representation language is defined by:


– its syntax, which defines all possible sequences of symbols that
constitute sentences of the language.
– its semantics, which determines the facts in the world to which
the sentences refer.

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Sentences and Facts

• Semantics maps sentences in logic to facts in the world.


• The property of one fact following from another is mirrored by the
property of one sentence being entailed by another.

4 10/30/2018
First Order Logic

6 10/30/2018 Convolutional Neural Network


First-Order Logic
Propositional logic represents facts
– Useful --- but has Limited Expressive Power

First-order logic gives


– Objects
 (people, houses, colors, …)
– Relations: how objects relate to each other
 (brother of, bigger than, part of, ...)
– Properties: features of an object
 (red, circle, …)
– Functions: output an object, given others
 (father of, best friend, …)

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Sentence  AtomicSentence
| Sentence Connective Sentence
| Quantifier Variable, … Sentence
|  Sentence
| (Sentence)

AtomicSentence  Predicate(Term,…) | Term = Term

Term  Function(Term,…)
| Constant
| Variable

Connective   |  |  | 
Quantifier   | 
Constant  A | X1 | John | …
Variable  a | x | s | …
Predicate  Before | HasColor | Raining | …
Function  MotherOf | LeftLegOf | …
8 10/30/2018
Syntax and Semantics: Term
Constant Symbols
 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘, 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑑, 𝐴𝑙𝑖, etc.

Variables Symbols:
 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎, etc.

Predicate Symbols :
 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑖, 𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑖ℎ ; 𝑀𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟(𝐴𝑛𝑛, 𝑆𝑢𝑒) ;
 𝐹𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑢𝑘𝑒, 𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑉𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑟 ; etc.

Function Symbols:
 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑂𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑐𝑎 ; 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡𝐿𝑒𝑔𝑂𝑓 𝐽𝑜ℎ𝑛 ; etc.

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Syntax and Semantics: Sentences
Atomic Sentences
 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝐸𝑘𝑜, 𝐷𝑎𝑛𝑢, 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐶𝑎𝑘𝑒
 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑖 = 𝐵𝑢𝑑𝑖
 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑆𝑜𝑛𝑂𝑓 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑑 , 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑑

Complex Sentences
 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑖, 𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑖ℎ  𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝐹𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑖, 𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑖ℎ, 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
 ¬𝐼𝑡𝑠𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦
 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑦 ∨ 𝑇𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑇𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑑𝑎𝑦

10 10/30/2018
Universal Quantifiers
“For all, For Every” : ∀
– ∀𝑥 𝐶𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑥
– ∀𝑥 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑥, 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦
 This sentence is true iff all these sentence is true
– 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑑𝑖 ⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝐴𝑛𝑑𝑖, 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦 ∧ 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑜 ⇒
𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑜, 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦 ∧ 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝐵𝑢𝑑𝑖 ⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝐵𝑢𝑑𝑖, 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦 ∧ ⋯

Usually use ⇒ with ∀


– Common mistake to use ∧
 ∀𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥, 𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑘𝑜𝑚 ∧ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑡(𝑥)

11 10/30/2018
Existential Quantifiers
“There Exists”: ∃
– ∃𝑥 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥, 𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑘𝑜𝑚 ∧ 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑥
– ∃𝑥 𝑀𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑥 ∧ 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥

Usually use ∧ with ∃


– Common mistake to use ⇒
 ∃𝑥 𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠(𝑥, 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑦)

12 10/30/2018
Properties of quantifiers
∀𝑥 ∀𝑦 same as ∀𝑦 ∀𝑥

∃𝑥 ∃𝑦 same as ∃𝑦 ∃𝑥

∃𝑥 ∀𝑦 not the same as ∀𝑦 ∃𝑥


– ∀𝑦 ∃𝑥 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑑(𝑦, 𝑥)
– ∃𝑥 ∀𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑦, 𝑥

13 10/30/2018
Connections between ∀ and ∃
∀𝑥 ¬𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠(𝑥, 𝐼𝑐𝑒𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚) is equivalent to
¬∃𝑥 𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑠(𝑥, 𝐼𝑐𝑒𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚)
De Morgan Rule
– ∀𝑥 ¬𝑃 ≡ ¬∃𝑥 𝑃 ¬ 𝑃∨𝑄 ≡ ¬𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑄
– ∀𝑥 𝑃 ≡ ∃𝑥 ¬𝑃 ¬ 𝑃∧𝑄 ≡ ¬𝑃 ∨ ¬𝑄
– ∀𝑥 𝑃 ≡ ¬∃𝑥 ¬𝑃 𝑃∧𝑄 ≡ ¬ ¬𝑃 ∨ ¬𝑄
– ∃𝑥 𝑃 ≡ ¬∀𝑥 ¬𝑃 𝑃∨𝑄 ≡ ¬ ¬𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑄

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Inference in First-Order Logic
Uses 7 rules from Propositional Logic
With three additional rules for more complex case
regarding to the quantifier
– Universal Instantiation or Universal Elimination
– Existential Instantiation or Existential Elimination
– Existential Introduction or Existential Generalization

15 10/30/2018
Example: Avunculate marriage
Avunculate marriage is illegal and prohibited
– marriage between an uncle and a niece or between an
aunt and a nephew (second-degree relative).

Case:
– W married to A
– W is biological daughter of B, where A and B is a twin

Prove that A and W’s marriage is invalid


– Using FOL

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Example: Avunculate marriage
∀𝑥, 𝑦 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∧ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ⇒ ¬𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 (1)

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 (2)

𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐵 (3)

𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 (4)

∀𝑥, 𝑦 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 (5)

∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∧ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑦, 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧) (6)

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Example: Avunculate marriage
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 ∧ 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐵 ∧ 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴

Universal Elimination of (5)


• ∀𝑥, 𝑦 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦
• 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 (7)

Modus Ponens of (4) and (7)


• 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 (8)

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Example: Avunculate marriage
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 ∧ 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐵 ∧ 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 ∧ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴

Universal Elimination of (6)


• ∀𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∧ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑦, 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓(𝑥, 𝑧)
• 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐵 ∧ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 ⇒ 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓(𝑊, 𝐴) (9)

And-Introduction from (3) and (8)


• 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐵 ∧ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 (10)

Modus Ponens of (9) and (10)


• 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓(𝑊, 𝐴) (11)

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Example: Avunculate marriage
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 ∧ 𝐷𝑎𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐵 ∧ 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 ∧ 𝑆𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝐵, 𝐴 ∧
𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓(𝑊, 𝐴)

Universal Elimination of (1)


• ∀𝑥, 𝑦 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∧ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ⇒ ¬𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦
• 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐴 ∧ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 ⇒ ¬𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 (12)

And-Introduction from (11) and (2)


• 𝑁𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑂𝑓 𝑊, 𝐴 ∧ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 (13)

Modus Ponens of (12) and (13)


• ¬𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑊, 𝐴 (14)

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THANK YOU
10/30/2018
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