K.S.

MAHESH LOHITH
Assistant Professor,
Center for emerging technologies,
SBM Jain College of Engineering,
BANGALORE-562 112.
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 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

• OBSERVED BY HENRICH HERTZ IN THE YEAR 1887

• ALBERT EINSTEIN EXPLAINED PHOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT ON THE BASIS OF PHOTON THEORY

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE: PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT

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 DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT

INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION POLARIZATION

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT COMPTON EFFECT

HENCE LIGHT POSSES DUAL NATURE

Light behaves a particle under certain circumstances

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Historically, the electron was thought to behave like a
Particle and then it was found that in many respects it
behaved like a wave. So it really behaves like neither. Now
we have given up.We say: It is like Neither.

Richard Feynman

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 DE BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS
In the Year 1924 Louis de Broglie
made the bold suggestion
“ If radiation which is basically a wave
can exhibit particle nature under certain
circumstances, and since nature likes
symmetry, then entities which exhibit
particle nature ordinarily, should also
exhibit wave nature under suitable
The reasoning used might be paraphrased as follows
circumstances”
3. Nature loves symmetry
4. Therefore the two great entities, matter and
energy, must be mutually symmetrical
LOUIS DE BROGLIE 5. If energy (radiant) is undulatory and/or
corpuscular, matter must be corpuscular
and/or undulatory

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 DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH
The Wave associated with the matter particle is called Matter Wave.
The Wavelength associated is called de Broglie Wavelength.
h h
de Broglie wavelength λ = =
p mv
h is Planck' s Constant
m is the mass of the particle
v is the velocity of the particle
for an electron with Kinetic Energy ' E '
accelerated by a Potential difference 'V '
h h
Then λ = =
2mE 2meV
substituting for h , m , and e we get
6.625 ×10 −34 1.226
λ= = nm
2 × 9.11×10 −31 ×1.602 ×10 −19 ×V V
thus for V = 100 Volts
1.226
λ= = 0.1226 nm
100 6
G P THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT

Diffraction of electrons from the Gold foil

suggests dual nature of Electrons

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 PHASE VELOCITY
Phase velocity: The velocity with which a wave travels is
called Phase velocity or wave velocity. It is denoted by vp. It
is given by
c2
vp =
v

Where c = velocity of light and v = is velocity of the particle.

The above equation gives the relationship between the

phase velocity and
particle velocity.

It is clear from the above equation that, Phase velocity is not only
greater than the velocity of the particle but also
greater than the velocity of light,
which can never happen. Therefore phase velocity has no physical
meaning in case of matter waves. Thus a concept of group
velocity was
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introduced.
 GROUP VELOCITY
Since phase velocity has no meaning, the concept of group
velocity was introduced as follows.
“ Matter wave is regarded as the resultant of the superposition of
large number of component waves all traveling with different
velocities. The resultant is in the form of a packet called wave packet
or wave group. The velocity with which this wave group travels is
called group velocity.” The group velocity is represented by vg.

Vg

Particle

Vp

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 PROPERTIES OF MATTER WAVES

Properties of Matter Waves

 M atter waves are associated with moving particle.

 They are not Electromagnetic waves.
h h
 W avelength of the matter wave is given by λ =
mv
=
p
h h
λ= =
mv 
p T he amplitude of the matter wave at the given point

determines the probability of finding the particle at that

point.
 There is no meaning for Phase velocity in case of matter
waves. Only group velocity has meaning.

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 HEINSENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
“It is impossible to determine both position and
momentum of a particle simultaneously and accurately.
The product of uncertainty involved in the determination of
position and momentum simultaneously is greater or equal
to h/2Π ”

h
∆x × ∆p x ≥
2π
h
∆E × ∆t ≥
2π

Significance: “Probalility” replaces “Exactness”

Heisenberg - 1927
An event which is impossible to occur according to classical physics has a finite probability
of occurrence according to Quantum Mechanics 11
 GAMMA RAY MICROSCOPE EXPERIMENT
Imaginary Experiment

To determine both position and momentum of the electron

Limit of resolution Δx is the measure of

A B
uncertainty involved in the measurement
of position
Scattered gamma ray

O X-axis
Incident gamma ray
λ
∆x =
Recoiled electron 2 Sinθ

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GAMMA RAY MICROSCOPE EXPERIMENT
During the collision, photon transfers momentum to the
electron. The momentum transferred to the electron is of the
order h/λ
the momentum transferred to the electron is of the order If
photon enters the microscope
h along the
h path OA and OB are
of the order , − Sin θ Sin θ
λ λ

Since photon can enter the microscope anywhere between the

paths OA or OB,  hthere exist
  uncertainty
h  in the
2hdetermination
∆p x =
of momentum oftheSin θ  −  given
electron − Sin byθ  = Sin θ
  λ   λ  λ

Taking the product ofpequations λ1 and 2 we

2 h get
∆x × ∆ x = × Sin θ =h
2 Sin θ λ

From more sophisticated theory it can be

h shown that
∆x × ∆p x =
Which is nothing but HUP.
2π 13
 e , ”
e r ed SCHRODINGER’S CAT
h
t ish
e
m van
e
e ut n d
s
ll t, B L a
i
w ca ll de r
o u e r o on
h
“Y id t Ca n W r
sa wis ce i
Le Ali
In

A Paradox

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 TWO SLIT EXPERIMENT
The only mystery

Experiment conducted with Interference pattern

Bullets, Light and electrons

Double slit

No matter how many times we repeat the experiment for

electrons we get consistent results-”Interference it there are no
observers, and No interference pattern if there are observers”-
This is confirmed.

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Never in human history had such a thing been encountered before. I
mean who ever heard of Nature behaving one way when you are
looking and completely different way when you are not looking? And
yet that is precisely what happens, at least in the world of electrons. It
seems that when we observe we disturb whenever it is that we are
trying to observe

Heisenberg’s Comment on two slit experiment

This is a very strange result, since it seems to indicate that the

observation plays a decisive role in the event and that reality
varies, depending upon whether we observe it or not

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 TIME INDEPENDENT SCHROEDINGER EQUATION
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’, moving
with a velocity ‘v’ along + ve X-axis.
Then the according to de Broglie
Hypothesis, the wave length of the wave
associated with the particle is given by

h
λ=
mv
Erwin Schroedinger

A wave traveling along x-axis can be represented by the

equation
Ψ ( x, t ) = A e − i (ωt − k x )

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Where Ψ(x,t) is called wave function. The differential
equation of matter wave in one dimension is derived as
d 2ψ 8 π 2 m
2
+ ( E − V)ψ = 0
dx h2
The above equation is called one-dimensional
Schroedinger’s wave equation in one dimension.In three
dimensions the Schroedinger wave equation becomes

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m
+ + 2 + ( E −V)ψ = 0
∂x 2
∂y 2
∂z h2
8 π 2
m
∇ψ +
2
( E −V)ψ = 0
h2
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 PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF WAVE FUNCTION

The state of a quantum mechanical system can be completely

understood with the help of the wave function ψ. But wave function ψ
can be real or imaginary. Therefore no meaning can be assigned to
wavefunction ψ as it is.

According to Max Born’s interpretation of the wavefunction, the only

quantity that has some meaning is
2
ψ

ψ
2

which is called as probability density.

2
ψ
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Thus if ψ is the wavefunction of a particle within a small region of
volume dv, then

2
ψ dV gives the probability of finding the particle within
the region dv at the given instant of time.

We know that electron is definitely found somewhere in the space.

The wavefunction ψ, which satisfies the above condition, is called
normalized wavefunction.

∫
2
ψ dv = 1
dv V

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 ature of Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions
A physical system can be completely described with the help of
the wave function ψ. In order to get wavefunction, first we have
to set up a Schrodinger wave equation representing the system.
Then, Schrodinger wave equation has to be solved to get
wavefunction ψ as a solution. But Schrodinger wave equation,
which is a second order differential equation, has multiple
solutions. All solutions may not represent the physical system
under consideration. Those wavefunction, which represent the
physical system under consideration, are acceptable, and are
called Eigenfunctions.

A wavefunction ψ can be acceptable as wavefunction if it satisfies

the following conditions.

. ψ should be single valued and finite everywhere.

. ψ and its first derivatives with respect to its variables21 are

 MOTION OF AN ELECTRON IN ONE DIMENSIONAL
POTENTIAL WELL (PARTICLE IN A BOX)
Consider an electron of mass m, moving along positive x-axis
between two walls of infinite height, one located at x=0 and another
at x=a. Let potential energy of the electron is assumed to be zero in
the region in-between the two walls and infinity in the region beyond
the walls.

V = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a V=∞ V=0 V=∞

V= ∞ for x < 0 & x > a

X=0 X=a

X-axis 22
 Region beyond the walls:
The Schrodinger’s wave equation representing the motion of the particle in
the region beyond the two walls is given by

d 2ψ 8 π 2 m
2
+ ( E − ∞) ψ = 0
dx h2

The only possible solution for the above equation is ψ=0.

Since ψ=0 , the probability of finding the particle in the region x<0
and x>a is Zero . i.e., particle cannot be found in region beyond the
walls.

Region between the two walls:

The Schrodinger’s wave equation representing the motion of the
particle in the region between the two walls is given by

d 2ψ 8π 2 m
+ ( E − 0) ψ = 0 V =0
dx 2 h2

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 d 2ψ 8 π 2 mE
2
+ 2
ψ = 0
dx h
d 2ψ
2
+ α 2
ψ =0 1
dx
8 π 2 mE
where α = 2
1a
h2

Solution of the equation 1 is of

the form

ψ = A sin αx + B cos αx 2
Where A and B are unknown constants to be determined. Since
particle cannot be found inside the walls

at x = 0 , ψ = 0 I
and at x = a , ψ = 0 II
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The equations are called boundary conditions. Using the I boundary
condition in equation 2, we get

0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
∴B = 0

Therefore equation 2
becomes
ψ = A sin αx 3
Using condition II in equation 3 we get
0 = A sin αa
A ≠ 0 sinαa = 0
∴ αa = nπ
where n = 0,1,2,......
nπ
∴α =
a 25
Therefore correct solution of the equation 1 can be
written as
nπ
ψ n = A sin x 4
a

The above equation represents Eigenfunctions. Where n=1,2,3,..

(n=0 is not acceptable because, for n=o the wavefunction ψ
becomes zero for all values of x. Then particle cannot be found
anywhere)

Substituting
n2h2 for α in equation2 1a we get
 nπ  8π m E
En = 5 2

 =
2
8ma
 2
 a  h
Therefore energy Eigenvalues are represented by the
equation
n2h2
En = 5
8ma 2
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 Where n=1,2,3,..
It is clear from the above equation that particle can have only
desecrated values of energies. The lowest energy that particle can
have corresponds to n=o , and is called zero-point energy. It is given
by
h2
ψn =
2
sin
nπ
x Ezero − po int = 6
a a
8ma 2
Normalization of wave function:

We know that particle is definitely found somewhere in

space

a
2
∫ ψ n dx = 1
0

Therefore Normalised wavefunction is given by

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 a nπ
2
∫ A sin
2
x dx = 1
0 a
a 1
 2nπ 
A ∫ 1 − cos
2
 dx = 1
0 2 a 
a
A  2
a 2nπ 
x − sin x = 1
2  2 nπ a 0
A2
ψn =
2
sin
nπ
x [ ( a − 0) − ( 0 − 0) ] = 1
a a
2
2 2
A2 = or A =
a a
Therefore Normalized wave function is given by

2 nπ
ψn = sin x
a a
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Wavefunction, Probability density and energy of
the particle in different energy levels and at
different positions
For n=1 energy is
given by
h2
En = 2
=K
8ma

Wavefunction and probability density for different

values of x is given by
2 nπ 2 2 nπ
ψn = sin x p = ψn = sin 2 x
x a a a a

0 0 0
2 2 a
a a 2

0 0 0

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 Similarly for n=2

4h 2
En = 2
= 4K
8ma

 
x 2 nπ 2 2 nπ
ψn = sin x p = ψn = sin 2 x
a a a a

0 0 0

a 2 2
4 a a
a 0 0
2
3a 2 2
4 a a
a 0 0

30
 

Wavefunctions, probability density and energies are as

shown in the figure.

P2

n=
ψ2 2

P1

ψ1

n=
1
x=0 x=a/2
x=a

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 Free Particle
 
 
Consider a particle of mass m moving along positive x-axis.
Particle is said to be free if it is not under the influence of any field
or force. Therefore for a free particle potential energy can be
considered to be constant or zero. The Schrodinger wave equation
for a free particle is given by.
d 2ψ 8 π 2 m
2
+ ( E − 0) ψ = 0
dx h2

d 2ψ 8 π 2 mE
2
+ 2
ψ = 0
dx h
d 2ψ
2
+ α 2
ψ =0 1
dx
8 π 2
mE
where α 2 = 2
h2
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 The solution of the equation 1 is of the
form
ψ = A sin αx + B cos αx 3
Where A and B are unknown constants to be determined. Since
there are no boundary conditions A, B and α can have any
values.

Energy of the particle is given by

α 2h2
E= 4
8π 2 m

Since there is no restriction on α there is no restriction on E.

Therefore energy of the free particle is not quantised. i.e., free

particle can have any value of energy.

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