Electromechanical Energy

Conversion

WEEK 3 – Sistem Tenaga Elektrik

IHT

1
 Introduction

• Electro mechanical device converts energy between

electrical and mechanical forms.
• Electromechanical energy conversion theory helps in
representing electromagnetic force or torque in terms
of such parameters like electric current or
displacement.

2
 Introduction
Electromechanical energy conversions – use a magnetic
field as the medium of energy conversion
Electromechanical energy conversion device:

Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

or
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

3
Introduction
Three categories of electromechanical energy conversion
devices:
• Transducers (for measurement and control)- small motion
Transform the signals of different forms. Examples:
microphones, sensors and speakers.
• Force producing devices (translational force)- limited
mechanical motion.
Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, Example
Actuators - relays, solenoids and electromagnets.
• Continuous energy conversion equipment.
Operate in rotating mode. Examples: motors and generators.
4
Energy Conversion Process

The principle of conservation of energy:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only

be changed from one form to another. Therefore total
energy in a system is constant

5
Energy Conversion Process

An electromechanical converter
system has three essential parts:
① An electrical system (electric circuits such as windings)
② A magnetic system (magnetic field in the magnetic cores
and air gaps)
③ A mechanical system (mechanically movable parts such
as a rotor in an electrical machine).

6
EM Energy Conversion: Analogy
Thermal
Electrical Energy
Energy (losses)
(input)

Field Energy

Mechanical
Energy
(output)
7
Energy Conversion Process

Electromechanical
System

Electrical System Magnetic System Mechanical System

Voltages and Position, Speed

Magnetic Flux
Currents and Acceleration

Circuit Equations Froce/Torque Force/Torque Eqns

(KVL and KCL) (Newtons Law)
emf

Concept of electromechanical system modeling

8
Energy Conversion Process
Electrical system Magnetic system Mechanical
system P mech

Electrical Field loss Mechanical

loss loss

The energy transfer equation is as follows:

 Electrical   Mechanical  Increase in 

       Energy 
 energy input    energy    stored energy in    
 from sources  output   magnetic field   losses 
     

9
Energy Conversion Process
The energy balance can therefore be written as:

Electrical energy  Mechanical energy  Increase in 

     
input
 from sources  output
   friction  stored
  field 
     
resis
 tan ce loss and
  windage loss energy
   core loss 
For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,

 dWe  dWm  dWf

dWe = i d  = differential change in electric energy input
dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy
10
Energy Conversion Process

dλ
We can write dWe  ei dt; e
dt
dλ
dWe  idt  idλ
dt
Here e is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by
changing magnetic stored energy.

dWe  ei dt  dWm  dWf

Together with Faraday’s law for induced voltage, form the
basis for the energy method.

11
Laws of electromagnetism

There are four laws of electromagnetism

• Faraday`s Law.
• Lenz`s Law
• The Biot-Savart law
• Ampere's law

12
Faraday`s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

• Faraday`s First Law: When the magnetic

flux linking with the coil changes, an
e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
• Faraday`s Second Law: The magnitude
of induced e.m.f. is the rate of change of
flux linkage in it.

13
Lenz’s Law
It states that the direction of induced
e.m.f. in the conductor will always oppose
the cause of its production.

The negative sign in the above equation

signifies this effect.

14
 The Biot-Savart Law

Any current element projects into space a magnetic

field, the magnetic flux density of which dB, is directly
proportional to the length of the element dl, the
current I, the sine of the angle and θ between direction
of the current and the vector joining a given point of
the field and the current element and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance of the given
point from the current element, r.

15
Ampere’s Law
Ampere's law states that for any closed
loop, the sum of the length elements
times the magnetic field in the direction
of the length element is equal to the
permeability times the electric current
enclosed in the loop.

16
Induced E.M.F.

Induced emf

Dynamically Statically induced

induced e.m.f. e.m.f

Mutually Self induced

induced e.m.f. e.m.f.
17
Self Induced e.m.f.
Self inductance is the phenomenon in
which if the current flowing through the
inductive coil changes, then an induced
e.m.f. will be produced in the coil.

18
Mutually induced e.m.f.
It is the phenomenon in which a change
of current in one coil causes an induced
e.m.f. in another coil placed near to the
first coil.

19
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
Consider a coil with N turns wound on a
magnetic material. This magnetic
material will act as a core. When the coil
is supplied with a voltage of volts,
current i will flow through it. Let R be
the resistance of the coil. Then from
power equation will be

20
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

21
Singly-excited System
Energy, Coenergy
and Force or Torque

22
Energy in Magnetic System
Consider the electromechanical system below:

Axial length (perpendicular

to page) = l

Schematic of an electromagnetic relay

23
Energy in Magnetic System
The mechanical force fm is defined as acting from the
relay upon the external mechanical system and the
differential mechanical energy output of the relay is

dWm = fm dx
Then, substitution dWe = id , gives

dWf = id  – fm dx
Value of Wf is uniquely specified by the values
of  and x, since the magnetic energy storage
system is lossless.
24
Energy in Magnetic System
 dWf = id

d

Wf   id
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

25
Energy and Coenergy
The -i characteristics of an electromagnetic system
depends on the air-gap length and B-H characteristics
of the magnetic material.


For a larger air-gap

length the characteristic
is essentially linear. The
characteristic becomes
non linear as the air-gap Increased
air-gap
length decreases. length

26
i
Energy and Coenergy


-i

Wf

Wf’

i
For a particular value of air-gap length, the field energy is represented by the red
area between  axis and -i characteristic. The blue area between i axis and  - i
characteristic is known as the coenergy

27
Energy and Coenergy
The coenergy is defined as
W    di
f
' i
0
From the figure of  - i characteristic,

Wf ’ + Wf = i
Note that Wf’ > Wf if the  - i characteristic is non
linear and Wf’ = Wf if it is linear.
The quantity of coenergy has no physical significance.
However, it can be used to derive expressions for force
(torque) developed in an electromagnetic system
28
Determination of Force from Energy

The magnetic stored energy Wf is a state

function, determined uniquely by the
independent state variables λ and x. This is
shown explicitly by

dWf (λ, x) = id  – fm dx

29
 Determination of Force from Energy
For any function of two independent variables
F(x1,x2), the total differential equation of F
with respect to the two state variables x1 and x2
can be written

F(x1, x 2 ) F(x1, x 2 )
dF(x1, x 2 )  dx1  dx 2
x1 x 2
x 2 x 1


30
 Determination of Force from Energy

Therefore, for the total differential of Wf

Wf (, x) Wf (, x)

dWf (, x)  d  dx
 x x 

And we know that

dWf (, x)  id  f m dx



 31
Determination of Force from Energy
By matching both equations, the current:
Wf ( , x)
i
 x
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding x constant and the mechanical force:
Wf (, x)
 fm  
x 
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding  constant.

 32
Determination of Force from Energy: Linear System

For a linear magnetic system for which =L(x)i:

 
 1 2
Wf ( , x)   i( , x)d   d 
0 0 L(x) 2 L(x)
and the force, fm can be found directly:

Wf (, x)  1 2  2 dL(x)

 fm       
x  x 2 L(x)  2L(x) dx
2

33
Determination of Torque from Energy
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement θ and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

Wf (, )
T 
 

where the partial derivative is taken while

holding  constant.

34
 Determination of Force from
Coenergy
The coenergy Wf’ is defined as
W f' (i, x)  i  W f (, x)
and the differential coenergy dWf’:

dW (i, x)  d(i)  dW f ( , x)
'
f

We know previously that
dWf (, x)  id  f m dx

35
 Determination of Force from Coenergy
By expanding d(iλ):
d(i )  id  di
So, the differential coenergy dWf’:

 dW (i,'
fx)  d(i )  dW f ( , x)
 id  di  (id  f m dx)
 di  f m dx

 36
 Determination of Force from Coenergy
By expanding dWf’(i,x):

W '
(i, x) W '
f (i, x)
dWf (i, x) 
' f
di  dx
i x
x i
and, from the previous result:

dW (i, x)  di  f m dx
'
 f

 37
Determination of Force from Coenergy
By matching both equations, :
Wf' (i, x)

i x
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding x constant and the mechanical force:
Wf' (i, x)
 fm 
x i
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding i constant.

 38
Determination of Force from Coenergy: Linear System
For a linear magnetic system for which =L(x)i:
i i 2
i
Wf' (i, x)   (i, x)di   L(x)idi L(x)
0 0 2
and the force, fm can be found directly:

W (i, x)
'
  i 2  2
i dL(x)
 fm  f
 L(x)  
x i x  2 i 2 dx

 39
Determination of Torque from Coenergy
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal,
the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement θ and the torque T.
Therefore, equation for the torque:

W (i, )
'
T f
 i
where the partial derivative is taken while
holding  constant.

40
Determination of Force Using Energy or Coenergy?

The selection of energy or coenergy as the

function to find the force is purely a matter of
convenience.
They both give the same result, but one or the
other may be simpler analytically, depending on
the desired result and characteristics of the
system being analyzed.

41
Direction of Force Developed
Wf (, x)
1. By using energy function: f m  
x 

The negative sign shows that the force acts in a

direction to decrease the magnetic field stored
energy at constant flux.
 W (i, x)
'
2. By using coenergy function: f m   f
x i
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts
in a direction to increase the coenergy at
constant current.

42
Direction of Force Developed
3. By using inductance function:
2
i dL(x)
fm  
2 dx i

The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts

in a direction to increase the inductance at
constant
 current.

43
B-H Curve and Energy Density
In a magnetic circuit having a substantial air
gap g, and high permeability of the iron core,
nearly all the stored energy resides in the gap.
Therefore, in most of the cases we just need
to consider the energy stored in the gap. The
magnetic stored energy,

W f   id
0

Hg
in which i and d  d ( N )  d ( NAB)  NAdB
N

44
B-H Curve and Energy Density
B Hg B
Therefore, W f  
0 N
NAdB  Ag  H dB
0

However, Ag is volume of the air gap. Dividing

both sides of the above equation by the volume
Ag results in

Wf B
wf    H dB
Ag 0

45
B-H Curve and Energy Density
B
where w f   H dB is energy per unit volume
0

wf is known as energy density.

wf
B
The area between the B-H
curve and B axis
represents the energy
Hdensity in the air gap.

46
B-H Curve and Energy Density
In the same manner,
H
w 
'
f BdH is coenergy per unit volume.
0

B
wf ’

The area between the B-H

curve and H axis represents
the coenergy density in the
air gap.
H

47
B-H Curve and Energy Density
For a linear magnetic circuit, B = mH or H =
B/m, energy density:
2
B B B B
w f   H dB   dB 
0 0 m 2m
and coenergy density:
H H
mH 2
w   BdH   m HdH 
'
f
0 0
2

In this case, it is obvious that wf = wf ’.

* Sen pg97
10/7/2018 Dr Awang Jusoh/Dr Makbul 48
48
Example 1
The dimensions of the relay system are shown in
figure below. The magnetic core is made of cast
steel whose B-H characteristic is shown in Figure
1.7 (pg.6). The coil has 300 turns, and the coil
resistance is 6 ohms. For a fixed air-gap length lg =
4 mm, a dc source is connected to the coil to
produce a flux density of 1.1 Tesla in the air-gap.
Calculate lg 5 cm

(a)The voltage of the dc source. 5 cm

(b)The stored field energy.
10 cm Depth =10 cm

5 cm

10 cm 49
Example 2
The -i relationship for an electromagnetic
system is given by

 g 
2

i 
 0.09 

which is valid for the limits 0 < i < 4 A and 3 < g <
10 cm. For current i = 3A and air gap length g = 5
cm, find the mechanical force on the moving part
using coenergy and energy of the field.

50
Example 3
The magnetic system shown in the Figure has the
following parameters:
N = 400, i = 3 A
Width of air-gap = 2.5 cm i
lg
Depth of air-gap = 2.5 cm N

Length of air-gap = 1.5 mm Ag

Neglect the reluctance of the core, leakage flux

and the fringing flux. Determine:
(a) The force of attraction between both sides of
the air-gap
(b) The energy stored in the air-gap.
(c) Coil Inductance
51
Example 4
The lifting magnetic system is shown, with a
square cross section area 6 x 6 cm2. The coil
has 300 turns and a resistance of 6 ohms.
Neglect core reluctance and fringing effect.
a) The air gap is initially 5mm and a dc source
of 120 V is connected to the coil. Determine
the stored field energy and the lifting force
b) The air gap is held at 5 mm and an ac source
of 120 Vrms at 60 Hz is supplied to the coil.
Determine the average value of the lift force

52
Example 5
Q. The magnetic circuit shown in Figure Q1 is made of high permeability steel
so that its reluctance can be negligible. The movable part is free to move about
an x-axis. The coil has 1000 turns, the area normal to the flux is (5 cm  10 cm),
and the length of a single air gap is 5 mm.
(i) Derive an expression for the inductance, L, as a function of air gap, g.
(ii) Determine the force, Fm, for the current i =10 A.
(iii) The maximum flux density in the air gaps is to be limited to approximately
1.0 Tesla to avoid excessive saturation of the steel. Compute the maximum force.
Immovable x
part g
Reference
position

i
+ Fm

e
Spring
-

Movable
part
53
Example 6
Figure below shows a relay made of infinitely-permeable magnetic material
with a moveable plunger (infinitely-permeable material). The height of the
plunger is much greater than air gap length (h>>g). Calculate
a) The magnetic storage energy Wf as a function of plunger position ( 0< x <d)
for N = 1000 turns, g = 2 mm, d= 0.15 m, = 0.1 m and i = 10 A.
b) The generated force, Fm

54
Example 7
The magnetic circuit shown is made of high-permeability
electrical steel. Assume the reluctance of steel m -- infinity.
Derive the expression for the torque acting on the rotor .

55
Example 8
The magnetic circuit below consists of a single coil stator and an oval rotor. Because of
the air-gap is non uniform, the coil inductance varies with the rotor angular position.
Given coil inductance L() = Lo + L2cos2, where Lo= 10.6 mH and L2= 2.7 mH.
Find torque as a function of  for a coil current of 2 A.

56
Doubly-excited Systems
Energy, Coenergy
and Force or Torque

57
Rotating Machines
• Most of the energy converters, particularly the
higher-power ones, produce rotational motion.
• The essential part of a rotating electromagnetic
system is shown in the figure.
• The fixed part is called the stator,
the moving part is called the rotor.
• The rotor is mounted on a shaft
and is free to rotate between
the poles of the stator
• Let consider general case where
both stator & rotor have windings
carrying current ( is and ir )

58
Rotating Machines
• Assume general case, both stator and rotor have winding carrying
currents (non-uniform air gap – silent pole rotor)
• The system stored field energy, Wf can be evaluated by
establishing the stator current is and rotor current ir and let
system static, i.e. no mechanical output

Stator and rotor

flux linkage  is
expressed in
terms of
inductances L
(which depends
on position rotor
angle , L()

59
Rotating Machines
• Stored field energy

In linear system,
X
• Torque coenergy = energy
W’f = Wf

• First two terms represents reluctance torque; variation

of self inductance (exist in both salient stator and rotor,
or in either stator or rotor is salient)
• The third term represents alignment torque; variation
of mutual inductance. 60
Reluctance Torque – It is caused by the
tendency of the induced pole to align with
excited pole such that the minimum reluctance
is produced. At least one or both of the
winding must be excited.

Alignment Torque – It is caused by a tendency

of the excited rotor to align with excited stator
so as to maximize the mutual inductance.
Both winding must be excited.

61
Cylindrical Machines
• Reluctance machines are simple in
construction, but torque developed in these
machines is small.
• Cylindrical machines, although more
complex in construction, produce larger
torques.
• Most electrical machines are of the
cylindrical type.

62
 Cylindrical Machines
• A cross sectional view of an elementary
two pole cylindrical rotating machine is
(uniform air gap) shown.
• The stator and rotor windings are placed
on two slots.
• In the actual machine the windings are
distributed over several slots.
• If the effects of the slots are neglected,
the reluctance of the magnetic path is
independent of the position of the rotor.
• Assumed Lss and Lrr are constant (i.e no
reluctance torque produced).
• Alignment torque is caused by the
tendency of the excited rotor to align
with the excited stator, depends on
mutual inductance
63
Cylindrical machines
• Torque produced Tm when =90o
dL sr dMcosθ
T  i si r  i si r  Mi s i r sin θ
dθ dθ
• Mutual inductance

• Currents

• Rotor position Where

M = peak value of mutual inductance
 = the angle between magnetic axis of
the stator and rotor windings
m = angular velocity of rotor
64
Cylindrical Machines
T  IsmI rm Mcosωs t cos(ωr t  α) sin( ωm t  δ)

• Torque in general varies sinusoidally with time

• Average value of each term is zero unless the
coefficient of t is zero

65
Cylindrical Machines
• Non zero average torque exists/develop only if
Machine develop torque
if sum or difference of
the angular speed of the
Case 1: stator and rotor current
• Synchronous machine
Wr =0 – Idc at rotor

• Single phase machine

• Pulsating torque

• Polyphase machine minimize pulsating torque

• Not self starting (ωm = 0 → Tavg = 0
66
Cylindrical Machines
• Asynchronous machines

• Single phase machine

• Pulsating torque
• Not self starting
• Polyphase machine minimize pulsating torque and self starting

67
Example 9
• In a electromagnetic system, the rotor has no winding (i.e.
we have a reluctance motor) and the inductance of the
stator as a function of the rotor position θ is
Lss = L0 + L2 cos 2θ. The stator current is is= Ism sin ωt
(a)Obtain an expression for the torque acting on the rotor
(b)Let  = mt+ , where m is the angular velocity of the rotor
and  is the rotor position at t = 0. Find the condition for the
non-zero average torque and obtain the expression for the
average torque.

68
Example 10
In a doubly excited rotating actuator shown in figure
below, the stator inductances are given as L11= (3+cos2)
mH, L12 = 0.3cos, and the rotor impedance is L22 =
30+10cos2. Find the developed torque in the system for
i1=0.8A and i2 = 0.01 A.

69