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COSC 3340: Introduction To Theory of Computation

This document summarizes key points from Lecture 15 of COSC 3340: Introduction to Theory of Computation. It discusses that not all languages are context-free using cardinality arguments. It then introduces the Pumping Lemma technique for showing specific languages are not context-free. The statement of the Pumping Lemma is given along with details of the proof. Examples are provided of applying the Pumping Lemma to show languages like {anbncn} are not context-free. Finally, it discusses that context-free languages are not closed under intersection and complement.

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63 views18 pages

COSC 3340: Introduction To Theory of Computation

This document summarizes key points from Lecture 15 of COSC 3340: Introduction to Theory of Computation. It discusses that not all languages are context-free using cardinality arguments. It then introduces the Pumping Lemma technique for showing specific languages are not context-free. The statement of the Pumping Lemma is given along with details of the proof. Examples are provided of applying the Pumping Lemma to show languages like {anbncn} are not context-free. Finally, it discusses that context-free languages are not closed under intersection and complement.

Uploaded by

MathiasReolon
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 18

COSC 3340: Introduction to Theory of

Computation

University of Houston
Dr. Verma
Lecture 15

1 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Are all languages context-free?

 Ans: No.
 How do we know this?
– Ans: Cardinality arguments.
 Let C(CFG) = {G | G is a CFG}. C(CFG) is a
countable set. Why?
 Let AL = { L | L is a subset of *}. AL is
uncountable.

2 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Pumping Lemma

 First technique to show that specific given


languages are not context-free.
 Cardinality arguments show existence of
languages that are not context-free.
 There is a big difference between the two!

3 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Statement of Pumping Lemma

If A is an infinite context-free language, then


there is a number p (the pumping length)
where, if s is any string in A of length at least
p, then s may be divided into five pieces s =
uvxyz satisfying the conditions.
1. For each i  0, uvixyiz ε A,
2. |vy| > 0, and
3. |vxy| <= p.

4 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Statement of Pumping Lemma (contd.)

• When s is divided into uvxyz, cond. 2 says -


either v or y is not the empty string.
• Otherwise the theorem would be trivially true.
• Cond. 3 say - the pieces v, x, and y together
have length at most p.
• This condition is useful in proving that certain
languages are not context free.

5 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Proof of pumping lemma

Idea: If a sufficiently long string s is derived by a CFG,


then there is a repeated nonterminal on a path in the
parse tree.
One such repeated nonterminal must have a nonempty
yield “on the sides” – v, y.
This nonterminal can be used to build infinitely many
longer strings (and one shorter string, i = 0 case)
derived by the CFG.
 Uses: Pigeon-hole principle

6 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Details of Proof of Pumping Lemma.

 Let A be a CFL and let G be a CFG that


generates it. We must show how any
sufficiently long string s in A can be pumped
and remain in A.
 Let s be a very long string in A.
 Since s is in A, it is derivable from G and so
has a parse tree. The parse tree for s must
be very tall because s is very long.
7 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma
Details of Proof of Pumping Lemma
(contd).

How long does s have to be?


– Let b be the maximum number of symbols in the
right-hand side of a rule.
– Assume b  2.
 A parse tree using this grammar can have no more than
b children.
 At least b leaves are 1 step from the start variable; at
most b2 leaves are at most 2 steps from the start
variable; at most bh leaves are at most h steps from the
start variable.

8 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Details of Proof of Pumping Lemma
(contd).

– So, if the height of the parse tree is at most h,


the length of the string generated is at most bh
– Let |V | = number of nonterminals in G
– Set p = b|V|+2
– Because b  2, we know that p > b|V|+1, so a
parse tree for any string in A of length at least p
requires height at least |V | + 2.
 Therefore, let s in A be of length at least p.

9 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Details of Proof of Pumping Lemma
(contd).

 The parse tree must contain some long path from the
start variable at the root of the tree to one of
the terminal symbol at a leaf. On this
T
long path some variable symbol ..
..
R must repeat because of the R
pigeonhole principle. ..
.
R

u v x y z
We start with a smallest parse tree with yield s

10 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Details of Proof of Pumping Lemma
(contd).

 This repetition of R allows us to replace T


..
the subtree under the 2nd occurrence ..
of R with the subtree under the 1st R
..
occurrence of R and still get a .
R
legal parse tree. Therefore we
may cut s into 5 pieces u v R y z
uvxyz as the figure indicates
and we may repeat the 2nd and v x y
4th pieces and obtain a sting in the language.

11 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Details of Proof of Pumping Lemma
(contd).

 In other words, uvixyiz is in A for any i  0.


even if i = 0.
T
..
..
R

x
u z

12 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Some Applications of Pumping Lemma

 The following languages are not context-free.


1. {anbncn | n  0 }.
2. {a{n2} | n  0}.
3. {w in {a,b,c}* | w has equal a’s, b’s and c’s}.

13 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Example: CFL L = {anbncn | n  0 }.

 L is not context free.


 To show this, assume L is a CFL. L is infinite.
 Let w = apbpcp, p is the pumping length

a…ab…bc…c |vy|  0
|vxy|  p
p p p

|w| = 3p  p

14 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Example (contd.)

Case 1:
– Both v and y contain only one type of alphabet symbols, v
does not contain both a’s and b’s or both b’s and c’s and the
same holds for y. Two possibilities are shown below.

a…ab…bc…c
v y/v y

– In this case the string uv2xy2z cannot contain equal number


of a’s, b’s and c’s. Therefore, uv2xy2z  L

15 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Example (contd.)

Case 2:
– Either v or y contain more than one type of alphabet
symbols. Two possibilities are shown below.

a…a … a b b b… b c … c
v y/v y

– In this case the string uv2xy2z may contain equal number of


the three alphabet symbols but won’t contain them in the
correct order.
– Therefore, uv2xy2z  L

16 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


CFL’s not closed under
intersection and complement

 Let Σ = {a,b,c}. L = {w over Σ | w has equal a’s and


b’s}. L’ = {w over Σ | w has equal b’s and c’s}. L, L’
are CFLs.
 L intersect L’ = {w over Σ | w has equal a’s, b’s and
c’s}, which is not a CFL.
 Because of closure under Union and DeMorgan’s
law, CFLs are not closed under complement also.
 CFLs are closed under intersection with regular
languages.

17 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma


Tips of the trade -- Do not forget!

Closure properties can be used effectively for:


(1) Shortening cumbersome Pumping lemma
arguments.
Example: {w in {a, b, c}* | w has equal a's, b's, and c's}.
(2) For showing that certain languages are context-free.
Example:
{w in {a, b, c}* | w has equal a's and b's or equal b's and c's }.

18 Lecture 15 UofH - COSC 3340 - Dr. Verma

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