Computer Organization and

Assembly Language
 Computing Machines
Ubiquitous ( = everywhere)
• General purpose: servers, desktops, laptops, PDAs,
etc.
• Special purpose: cash registers, ATMs, games, Mobile
Phones, etc.
• Embedded: cars, door locks, printers, digital players,
industrial machinery, medical equipment, etc.
Distinguishing Characteristics
• Speed
• Cost
• Ease of use, software support & interface
• Scalability
 Computer

Hardware Software
Electronics circuit boards Program consists
that provide of sets of instructions
functionality of the system that control the system
 Inside the Computer

• Application software
• Written in high-level language
• System software
• Compiler: translates HLL code to machine code
• Operating System: service code
• Handling input/output
• Managing memory and storage
• Scheduling tasks & sharing resources
• Hardware
• Processor, memory, I/O controllers
 Functions of a Computer

Functions of all Computers are:

• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control
 A Programmer’s View of a Computer

Application Programs

Machine-independent High-Level Languages High-Level Languages

Machine-Specifi Low-Level Language

Assembly Language

Machine Language

Microprogram Control

Hardware
 Levels of Program Code

• High-level language
• Level of abstraction closer to
problem domain
• Provides productivity and
portability
• Assembly language
• Textual representation of
instructions
• Hardware representation
• Binary digits (bits)
• Encoded instructions and data
 Computer Organization and Architecture
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

• How components fit together to create working computer system

• Includes physical aspects of computer systems
• Concerned with how computer hardware works

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

• Structure and behavior of computer system

• Logical aspects of system implementation as seen by programmer
• Concerned with how computer is designed
• Combination of hardware components with Instruction Set
Architecture (ISA): ISA is interface between software that runs on
machine & hardware that executes it
 Moore’s Law

• In 1965, Intel founder Gordon Moore stated:

“The density of transistors in an integrated circuit
will double every year”

• Current version of Moore’s Law predicts doubling of

density of silicon chips every 18 months

• Moore originally thought this postulate would hold for

10 years; advances in chip manufacturing processes
have allowed the law to hold for 40 years, and it is
expected to last for perhaps another 10
 Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and Software

• Anything that can be done with software can also be done with
hardware, and anything that can be done with hardware can also be
done with software
• Modern computers are implementations of algorithms that execute
other algorithms

Semantic Gap

• Open space between the physical components of a computer system

and the high-level instructions of an application
• Semantic gap is bridged at each level of abstraction
 Abstraction

Complete definition of abstraction includes the following:

• Suppression of detail
• Outline structure
• Division of responsibility
• Subdivision of system into smaller subsystems
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

• Can look at a computer as being a machine composed of

a hierarchy of levels
• Each level has specific function

• Each level exists as a distinct hypothetical machine (or virtual

machine)

• Each level’s virtual machine executes its own particular

set of instructions, calling upon machines at lower levels
to carry out tasks as necessary
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

“I really don’t think that you can write a book for serious
computer programmers unless you are able to discuss
low-level details.”
Donald E. Knuth
The Art of Computer Programming

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Knuth
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
• Text uses the following labels to describe
levels of abstraction in a computer system:
App7

Machine-specific
HOL6
Asmb5
OS4
ISA3
Mc2
LG1

• Each level has its own language to describe

tasks performed by Computer
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : APP7

• The application level is composed of those

programs designed to do specific kinds of
tasks for end users

Machine-specific
• An application may have some sort of
programming language associated with it
(macros or shortcuts, e.g.)
• Ideally, end users need not be concerned
with the actions and language(s)
associated with lower levels in the
abstraction hierarchy
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : HOL6

• The high order language layer is the layer

of abstraction at which most programmers
operate

Machine-specific
• Applications are typically written in high
order languages
• High order languages are characterized by:
• Portability across platforms
• Relative ease of use
• Relatively high level of abstraction, requiring
translation of program code prior to execution
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : ASMB5

• The assembly language level is an

intermediate step between high order
language and the machine language of a

Machine-specific
particular processor
• Programs at the HOL6 level are usually
compiled to level Asmb5, then translated
(assembled) to machine language
• Source code can also be written in
assembly language
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : OS4

• The operating system is responsible tasks

related to multiprogramming, including:
• Memory protection

Machine-specific
• Process synchronization
• Device management
• Operating systems were originally developed
for multiuser systems, but even most single
user systems utilize an operating system
• Compilers and assemblers are also
considered systems software
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : ISA3

• The instruction set architecture, or

machine language level, consists of the
set of instructions recognized by the

Machine-specific
particular hardware platform
• Instructions at this level are directly
executable without any translation
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : MC2

• The microinstruction or control level is the

level at which the computer decodes and
executes instructions and moves data in

Machine-specific
and out of the processor
• The processor’s control unit interprets
machine language instructions, causing
required actions to take place
 Abstraction and Computer Systems

Machine-independent
Level : LG1

• The digital logic level consists of the

physical components of the computer
system, the actual electronic gates and

Machine-specific
wires
• Boolean algebra and truth tables can be
used to describe the operations at this
level
Anatomy of a Computer
 Historical Development

• To fully appreciate the computers of today, it is

helpful to understand how things got the way they
are.
• The evolution of computing machinery has taken
place over several centuries.
• In modern times computer evolution is usually
classified into four generations according to the
salient technology of the era.

We note that many of the following dates are approximate.

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 Historical Development

• Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines

(1642 - 1945)
– Calculating Clock - Wilhelm Schickard (1592 - 1635).
– Pascaline - Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662).
– Difference Engine - Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871),
also designed but never built the Analytical Engine.
– Punched card tabulating machines - Herman Hollerith
(1860 - 1929).
Hollerith cards were commonly used for
computer input well into the 1970s.

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 Historical Development

• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube

Computers (1945 - 1953)
– Atanasoff Berry
Computer (1937 -
1938) solved systems
of linear equations.
– John Atanasoff and
Clifford Berry of Iowa
State University.

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 Historical Development

• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers

(1945 - 1953)
– Electronic Numerical
Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC)
– John Mauchly and J.
Presper Eckert
– University of
Pennsylvania, 1946
The first general-purpose computer.
The Army’s ENIAC, 1946 26
 Historical Development

• The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers

(1945 - 1953)

– IBM 650
(1955)
– Phased out
in 1969.

The first mass-produced computer.

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 Historical Development

• The Second Generation: Transistorized

Computers (1954 - 1965)
– IBM 7094 (scientific)
and 1401 (business)
– Digital Equipment
Corporation (DEC) PDP-
1
– Univac 1100
– . . . and many others.
DEC PDP-1

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 Historical Development

• The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit

Computers (1965 - 1980)
– IBM 360
– DEC PDP-8 and PDP-
11
– Cray-1
supercomputer
– . . . and many IBM 360
others.
Cray-1

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 Historical Development

• The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers

(1980 - ????)
– Very large scale integrated circuits
(VLSI) have more than 10,000
components per chip.
– Enabled the creation of
microprocessors.
– The first was the 4-bit Intel 4004. Intel
Later versions, such as the 8080, 8086, 4004
and 8088 spawned the idea of “personal
computing.”

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Computer: Functional View

Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movement
Apparatus
Mechanism

Data
Processing
Facility
 Computer: Operation

Data Movement

e.g. Keyboard to Screen

Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movement
Apparatus
Mechanism

Data
Processing
Facility
 Computer: Operation..

Storage

e.g. Internet Download to Hard Disk

Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movement
Apparatus
Mechanism

Data
Processing
Facility
 Computer: Operation….

Processing from/to storage

e.g. Updating Word/Excel File

Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movemen
Mechanism
t
Apparatus

Data
Processing
Facility
 Computer: Operation…...

Processing from storage to I/O

e.g. Printing a Word/Excel file.

Data
Storage
Facility

Data
Control
Movemen
Mechanism
t
Apparatus

Data
Processing
Facility
Anatomy of a Computer: Block Diagram
Anatomy of a Computer: Detailed Block Diagram
Anatomy of a Computer: Detailed Block Diagram
..
 Detailed Anatomy of a Computer

Processor (CPU)

Control Unit Common Bus (address, data & control)

Datapath

Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU)

Registers
Memory
Output
Program Input Units
Units
Storage
Data Storage
 Anatomy of a Computer: CPU
The brain of a Computer System

Processor (CPU)
•Decodes and monitors the execution of instructions.
•Controls flow of information in CPU, memory, I/O
Control Unit devices:
Datapath •System clock (Intel® Core™ I7-720QM Processor
(1.6GHz, turbo up to 2.8GHz, 6MB L3 Cache))
•Maintains a register called program counter(PC)
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
(ALU) •ALU: performs all arithmetic computations & logic
Registers evaluations.
•Registers: storage location in CPU, used to hold data
or a memory address during the execution of an
instruction..
 Anatomy of a Computer: Common Bus

Common Bus (address, data & control)

A group of conducting wires that allow signals to travel from one

point to another:
• Address bus: the location of data in memory or I/O devices
• Data bus: carry data in & out from CPU
• Control bus: control the operation of the CPU
 Anatomy of a Computer: Memory

Memory

Program
Storage
Data Storage

• Volatile: cannot retain data without power.

RAM • Allows the processor to read from & write into any
location on memory chip.

• Nonvolatile: when power is removed, the reapplied, the

ROM original data will still be there
• Can only be read, cannot be written to by the processor
 Anatomy of a Computer: Memory
data address

Components of memory
• A memory in Microprocessor stores data in binary format. To retrieve an information, the
Microprocessor assigns addresses to the location. Each location stores 1 byte of data.
• If a value of hex A0 is stored in the location of $2001, show the content of the memory
on $2001.
 Anatomy of a Computer: I/O Devices
Input devices

Allow computer user to enter data & programs into the computer
Anatomy of a Computer: I/O Devices
Output device

Displaying the results of computation

The von Neumann Model

• On the ENIAC
(1946-1955), all
programming
was done at the
digital logic
level.
• Programming
the computer
involved moving
plugs and wires.

46
The von Neumann Model

• Inventors of the ENIAC, John Mauchley and

J. Presper Eckert, conceived of a computer
that could store instructions in memory.
• The invention of this idea has since been
ascribed to a mathematician, John von
Neumann, who was a contemporary of
Mauchley and Eckert.
• Stored-program computers have become
known as von Neumann Architecture systems.

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The von Neumann Model

• Today’s stored-program computers have the

following characteristics:
– Three hardware systems:
• A central processing unit (CPU)
• A main memory system
• An I/O system
– The capacity to carry out sequential instruction
processing.
– A single data path between the CPU and main
memory.
• This single path is known as the von Neumann
bottleneck.

48
The von Neumann Model

• This is a general
depiction of a von
Neumann system:

• These computers
employ a fetch-
decode-execute
cycle to run
programs as
follows . . .

49
The von Neumann Model

• The control unit fetches the next instruction from

memory using the program counter to determine where
the instruction is located.

50
The von Neumann Model

• The instruction is decoded into a language that the ALU

can understand.

51
The von Neumann Model

• Any data operands required to execute the instruction

are fetched from memory and placed into registers
within the CPU.

52
The von Neumann Model

• The ALU executes the instruction and places results in

registers or memory.

53
The Modified von Neumann Architecture
(adding a system bus)

54
 The System Bus Model

• A refinement of the von Neumann model, the system bus model has a CPU (ALU and
control), memory, and an input/output unit.

• Communication among components is handled by a shared pathway called the system

bus, which is made up of the data bus, the address bus, and the control bus. There is also
a power bus, and some architectures may also have a separate I/O bus.
 Assembly Language

Some Important Questions to ask

• What is Assembly Language?

• Why Learn Assembly Language?
• What is Machine Language?
• How is Assembly related to Machine Language?
• What is an Assembler?
• How is Assembly related to High-Level Language?
• Is Assembly Language portable?
 A Hierarchy of Languages

Application Programs

Machine-independent High-Level Languages High-Level Languages

Machine-Specifi Low-Level Language

Assembly Language

Machine Language

Microprogram Control

Hardware
 Assembly and Machine Language
• Machine language
• Native to a processor: executed directly by hardware
• Instructions consist of binary code: 1s and 0s

• Assembly language
• A programming language that uses symbolic names to represent
operations, registers and memory locations.
• Slightly higher-level language
• Readability of instructions is better than machine language
• One-to-one correspondence with machine language instructions

• Assemblers translate assembly to machine code

• Compilers translate high-level programs to machine code
• Either directly, or
• Indirectly via an assembler
Compiler and Assembler
 Instructions and Machine Language

• Each command of a program is called an instruction (it

instructs the computer what to do).
• Computers only deal with binary data, hence the
instructions must be in binary format (0s and 1s) .
• The set of all instructions (in binary form) makes up the
computer's machine language. This is also referred to as
the instruction set.
 Instruction Fields

• Machine language instructions usually are made up of

several fields. Each field specifies different information for
the computer. The major two fields are:
• Opcode field which stands for operation code and it
specifies the particular operation that is to be performed.
• Each operation has its unique opcode.
• Operands fields which specify where to get the source and
destination operands for the operation specified by the
opcode.
• The source/destination of operands can be a constant,
the memory or one of the general-purpose registers.
 Translating Languages

English: D is assigned the sum of A times B plus 10.

High-Level Language: D = A * B + 10

A statement in a high-level language is translated

typically into several machine-level instructions

Intel Assembly Language: Intel Machine Language:

mov eax, A A1 00404000
mul B F7 25 00404004
add eax, 10 83 C0 0A
mov D, eax A3 00404008
Mapping Between Assembly Language and HLL

• Translating HLL programs to machine language

programs is not a one-to-one mapping
• A HLL instruction (usually called a statement) will be
translated to one or more machine language instructions
 Advantages of High-Level Languages

• Program development is faster

• High-level statements: fewer instructions to code
• Program maintenance is easier
• For the same above reasons
• Programs are portable
• Contain few machine-dependent details
• Can be used with little or no modifications on different
machines
• Compiler translates to the target machine language
• However, Assembly language programs are not portable
 Why Learn Assembly Language?

• Accessibility to system hardware

• Assembly Language is useful for implementing system software
• Also useful for small embedded system applications

• Space and Time efficiency

• Understanding sources of program inefficiency
• Tuning program performance
• Writing compact code

• Writing assembly programs gives the computer designer

the needed deep understanding of the instruction set and
how to design one
• To be able to write compilers for HLLs, we need to be
expert with the machine language. Assembly
programming provides this experience
 Assembly vs. High-Level Languages

• HLL programs are machine independent. They are easy to learn and
easy to use.

• Assembly language programs are machine specific. It is the

language that the processor directly understands.
 Tools for Assembly Language: Assembler

• Software tools are needed for editing, assembling, linking, and

debugging assembly language programs
• An assembler is a program that converts source-code programs
written in assembly language into object files in machine language
• Popular assemblers have emerged over the years for the Intel family
of processors. These include …
• TASM (Turbo Assembler from Borland)
• NASM (Netwide Assembler for both Windows and Linux), and
• GNU assembler distributed by the free software foundation
• MASM (Macro Assembler from Microsoft)
 Tools for Assembly Language: Linker & Libraries

• You need a linker program to produce executable files

• It combines your program's object file created by the

assembler with other object files and link libraries, and
produces a single executable program
 Assemble and Link Process

Source Object
File Assembler File

Source Object Executable

File Assembler File Linker
File

Source Object Link

File Assembler File Libraries

• A project may consist of multiple source files

• Assembler translates each source file separately into an object file
• Linker links all object files together with link libraries
 Summary

• Complete anatomy and functional view of a Computer.

• How different components fit together to create working computer
system.
• A computer system can be viewed as consisting of layers. Programs at
one layer are translated or interpreted by the next lower-level layer.
• Assembly language helps you learn how software is constructed at the
lowest levels.
• Assembly language has a one-to-one relationship with machine
language.
• An assembler is a program that converts assembly language programs
into machine language.
• A linker combines individual files created by an assembler into a single
executable file.