Manufacturing Process – 2

SOT, PDPU
 Distribution of Marks
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3 Lecture hours per week

Internal Assessments 25%

Mid Semester Exam 25%

End Semester Exam 50%

References:
 Machining and Machine Tools by A.B. Chattopadhyay
 A text book of Production Engineering by P.C. Sharma
 Production Technology by R.K. Jain and S.C. Gupta
 NPTEL Video Courses (nptel.ac.in)

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 Manufacturing Process
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Useful product of appropriate shape,

Raw Material of no value size, dimensional accuracy and surface
finish with lot of value
Definition:
It is a value adding process, which converts raw material of low utility
into a product of high utility in value
Manufacturing Technology:
Science and Technology for producing objects
•Effectively
•Efficiently
•Economically
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 Manufacturing Process (contd.)
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Objectives:

•Manufacturing time

•Product rate

•Manufacturing cost

•Profit rate
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 Classification of Manufacturing Process
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Liquid Casting

Solid Forming

Powder Powder
Metallurgy
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 Classification of Manufacturing Process
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Casting

Welding

Forming

Machining/
Finishing

Powder
Metallurgy

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 Classification of Manufacturing Process
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Rapid prototyping/ 3D Printing

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 Machining
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Need of Machining:
By pre-forming jobs have pre shape and size but they should have
appropriate dimensions and surface finish
•To enable the product to fulfill the functional requirements
•Good performance
•Survive longer

Definition:
It is a process of finishing by which
jobs of desired dimensions and
surface finish are produced by
gradually removing excess material
from the blank in the form of chips
with the help of a cutting tool

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 Machining Requirements
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Power

Blank

Machine Machining Process Product

Tool

Fixture

Tools Environment

Correction Analysis
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 Classification of Machining
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CLASSIFICATION OF
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
 Primary shaping processes(Solidification Processes)
 Metal forming processes (Deformation Processes)
 Secondary machining processes(Material Removal Processes)
 Joining processes(Assembly Operations)
 Surface finishing processes
 Processes effecting change in properties.
 Metals are shaped into usable forms through
various processes.
 No Cutting Shaping
◦ No chip formation takes place, and the metal is shaped under
the action of heat, pressure or both.
Ex: Forging, Drawing, Spinning, Rolling, Extruding, etc
 Cutting shaping
◦ The components are brought to the desired shape and size
by removing the unwanted material from the parent
metal in the form of chips through machining.
Ex: Turning, Boring, Milling, Drilling, Shaping, Planning, Broaching,
etc
 Material Removal Processes

 Jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products

received through primary shaping processes. The process of removing
the undesired or unwanted material from the workpiece or job or
component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known
as machining.
Machining in the Manufacturing
Sequence
 Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, and bar drawing

◦ Other processes create the general shape of the

starting workpart.
◦ Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create.
Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is

removal of material from a starting work-part so the remaining part
has the desired geometry

 Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning,

milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive particles,
e.g., grinding
 Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other than sharp
cutting tool to remove material like EDM,USM
Material Removal Processes

 The family tree

Why Machining is Important?

Variety of work materials can be machined

– Most frequently applied to metals

Variety of part shapes and special geometry features possible,

such as:
– Screw threads
– Accurate round holes
– Very straight edges and surfaces

Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

Disadvantages of Machining

• Wasteful of material
– Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation

• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes more time
to shape a given part than alternative shaping
processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or
forming
Machining Processes

 Various machining processes are

(1) Turning, (10) Sawing,

(2) Threading, (11) Broaching,
(3) Knurling, (12) Hobbing,
(4) Milling, (13) Grinding,
(5) Drilling, (14) Gear cutting,
(6) Boring, (15) Thread cutting and
(7) Planning, (16) Unconventional machining
(8) Shaping, processes using ECM, LBM, AJM,
(9) Slotting, USM setups etc.
Turning

 Single point cutting tool removes material

from a rotating workpiece to form a
cylindrical shape
 Drilling

 Used to create a
round hole, usually
by means of a
rotating tool (drill
bit) with two
cutting edges
 Milling
 Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
 Two forms: (c) peripheral milling and (d) face
milling
Threading Knurling Boring

Shaping
Planning
 Slotting Sawing

Broaching Hobbing
Grinding
 Basic Mechanics of Metal Cutting
 Metal ahead of the cutting tool is compressed. This results in the
deformation or elongation of the crystal structure—resulting in a
shearing of the metal. As the process continues, the metal above
the cutting edge is forced along the “chip-tool” interference zone
and is moved away form the work.
 Basic Mechanics Machining

 Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to

form a chip, and as chip is removed, new surface is exposed: (a)
positive and (b) negative rake tools
Basic Mechanics of Metal Cutting
Machining Terminology
Machining Terminology
 Tool Geometry
 The most important geometry’s to consider on a
cutting tool are
◦ Rake Angles
◦ Relief Angles
◦ Cutting Edge Angles
◦ Nose radius
 Tool Geometry
 The geometry of a cutting tool is
determined by factors like:
◦ Properties of the tool material
◦ Properties of the work piece
◦ Type of cut
 Like:-
 The hardness of the metal
 Type of cutting operation
 Material and shape of the cutting tool
 The strength of the cutting edge
 Right hand single point cutting
tool

FIGURE : (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally been
produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of various
shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).
Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry
Geometry of positive rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View
Nose Radius (NR)
Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Back rake angle (αb)

Side rake angle

(αs) Lip angle
Front View
Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry
Geometry of negative rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View
Nose Radius (NR)
Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Side rake angle (αs)

Lip angle Front View

Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

 Cutting edge Angles
 Side cutting Edge angle(SCEA)-Cs

◦ Also known as lead angle

◦ Angle between side cutting edge & side of the tool shank
◦ Prevents interference as the tool enters the work material
◦ The tip of the tool is protected at the start of the cut
◦ Affect tool life & surface finish
◦ Higher value will have more of its length in action for a given depth
of cut and edge last longer
◦ Chip produced will be thinner and wider which will distribute the
cutting and heat produced over more of the cutting edge.
◦ However ,higher values have greater component of forces tending
to separate the work and tool promoting chatter.
◦ 15° to 30°for general machining
◦ Low value for casting and forging having hard and scaly skin
 Effects of Side Cutting Edge Angle (Lead Angle)
1. At the same feed rate, increasing the side cutting edge
angle increases the chip contact length and decreases chip
thickness. As a result, the cutting force is dispersed on a
longer cutting edge and tool life is prolonged.
2. Increasing the side cutting edge angle increases force a'.
Thus, thin, long work pieces can suffer from bending.
3. Increasing the side cutting edge angle decreases the chip
thickness and increases chip width. Thus, breaking the chips
is difficult.
Cutting edge Angles

 End cutting Edge angle(ECEA)-Ce

◦ Angle between the end cutting edge & line normal to the tool shank
◦ Provides clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent
rubbing or drag between machined surface & trailing part of the
cutting edge( non-cutting).
◦ Only a small angle is sufficient 8° to15° degree
◦ Part off often have no end cutting edge angle
Relief angles
 Side Relief angle(SRF)-θs
◦ Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool
◦ Measured at right angle to the side flank
 End Relief angle(ER)-θe
◦ Angle between the portion of end flank immediately below the end
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool.
◦ Measured at right angle to the end flank
Need for Relief angle
 Provided so that flank of the tool clears the work piece surface and
there is no rubbing action between the two.
 Ranges from 5° to 15°
 Smaller angle are necessary to provide strength to the cutting edge
when machining hard and strong material
 Increased value of relief angle penetrate & cut the work piece
material more efficiently and thus reduces the cutting force.
 Too large angles weaken the cutting edge & there is less mass to
absorb and conduct the heat away from the cutting edge.
 Rake Angles
 Back Rake angle (BR)-αb
◦ Angle between face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of the tool
◦ Measured in a plane perpendicular through the side cutting edge.
◦ Angle is +ve if side cutting edge slopes downward from the point towards
the shank
◦ Angle is –ve when it is reverse i.e. slopes towards the point from shank
 Side Rake angle (SR)- αs
◦ Angle between face of the tool and a line perpendicular to the base of the
tool
◦ Measured in a plane perpendicular to the base & the side cutting edge.
◦ Angle give the slope of face of the tool from side cutting edge
◦ Angle is -ve if slopes towards the side cutting edge
◦ Angle is +ve when it slopes away from the cutting edge
 Importance of Rake Angles

 The top face of the tool over which the chip flows is known as
the rake face
 Cutting angle and angle of shear are affected by the values for
rake angles
 Larger the rake angle smaller the cutting angle (and larger the
shear angle) resulting in lower cutting force and power.
 However, since increase in rake angles decreases the cutting
angle, this leaves less metal at the point of the tool to support
cutting edge and in conducting the heat away.
 Small rake angle for cutting hard material and larger value for
softer material.
Importance of Rake Angles

 Use of negative rake angle started with use of carbide tools

 Carbide being brittle lacks shock resistance and will fail if
positive rake angle is used with it.
 Using negative rake angles directs the force back into the body
of the tool away from the cutting edge giving protection to the
cutting edge.
 Use of negative rake angles increases the cutting force but at
higher cutting speed at which carbide cutting tools are generally
used, this increase in force is less than at normal cutting speeds.
Recommendations w.r.t Rake Angle
 Positive rake angles
◦ When machining low strength ferrous & nonferrous
materials
◦ When using a low power machine
◦ Long shafts and smaller diameter
◦ When setup lack rigidity
◦ When cutting at low cutting speed
 Negative rake angles
◦ When machining high strength alloy
◦ When there is heavy impact loads such as interrupted
machining.
◦ For rigid setups and when cutting at high cutting speed
The rake angle for a tool depends on the following factors:
• Type of material being cut: A harder material like cast iron may be
machined by smaller rake angle than that required by soft material like
mid steel or aluminum.
• Type of tool material: Tool material like cemented carbide permits
turning at very high speed. At high speeds rake angle has little influence
on cutting pressure. Under such condition the rake angle can minimum
or even negative rake angle is provided to increase the tool strength.
• Depth of cut: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove
maximum amount of material. This means that the tool has to withstand
severe cutting pressure. So the rake angle should be decreased to
increase the lip angle that provides the strength to the cutting edge.
• Rigidity of the tool holder and machine: An improperly supported
tool on old or worn out machine cannot take up high cutting pressure.
So while machining under the above condition, the tool used should have
larger rake angle.
 Nose radius
• The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.

• The function of nose radius is as follows:

• Greater nose radius clears up the feed
marks caused by the previous shearing
action and provides better surface finish.
• All finish turning tool have greater nose
radius than rough turning tools.
• It increases the strength of the cutting
edge, tends to minimize the wear taking
place in a sharp pointed tool with
consequent increase in tool life.
• Accumulation heat is less than that in a
pointed tool which permits higher
cutting speeds.
Tool signature
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point cutting
tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in
degrees, and the size of the nose radius.
There are several systems available like American standard system (ASA),
Orthogonal rake system (ORS), Normal rake system (NRS), and
Maximum rake system (MRS).
The system most commonly used is American Standard Association
(ASA), which is:
Back rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief
angle, End cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Edge angle and
Nose radius.
OR
It is given in the order given as BRA, SRA, ERA,SRA, ECEA, SCEA, Nose radius that
is

8-14-6-6-6-15-1
αb –αs –θe –θs –Ce -Cs -R
Tool signature
For example a tool may designated in the following
sequence:
8-14-6-6-6-15-1
1. Bake rake angle is 8
2. Side rake angle is 14
3. End relief angle is 6
4. Side relief angle is 6
5. End cutting Edge angle is 6
6. Side cutting Edge angle is 15
7. Nose radius is 1 mm
Chip thickness ratio

Thickness of upward flowing chip is

always greater than the unreformed
chip.

The velocity of chip flow is directly

proportional to the shear plan angle.

Smaller the angle, lower the chip Chip thickness ratio = r, Un-
flow hence larger will be the deformed chip thickness=t1, Chip
thickness. thickness after separation = t2,
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From triangle OAP,

From triangle OBP,

r cos 
= (Cot φ x Cos α) + sin α tan  
1  r sin
Shear strain

Fig. Shear strain during chip formation:

(a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and
(c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation
 ε = tan( - ) + cot 

Where, ε = shear strain,  = shear plane angle, and  = rake angle of

cutting tool
Velocity relationships

Analytically,
Velocity relationship in Orthogonal cutting
• The relationships among the cutting forces were
establish by Merchant with the following assumptions.

– The cutting velocity is always remain constant

– Cutting edge of tool remains sharp throughout the cutting

– Only continuous chip is produced

– There is no built-up edge

– No consideration is made up for inertia force of the chip

– The behavior of chip is like that of a free body which is in the

state of stable equilibrium under the action of two resultant
forces which are equal, opposite and co-linear.
For equilibrium
 Merchant’s Circle
• It is useful to determine the
relation between various forces
and angles.
• In the diagram two triangles
have been combined and R and
R’ together have been replaced
by R.
• The force R can be resolved into
two components Fc and Ft.
• The shear angle (φ) can be
• Fc and Ft can be determined by obtained from the it’s relation
Force dynamometers. with chip reduction coefficient.
• The rake angle (α) can be
measured from the tool, and
• Now Fs and Fn can also be
forces F and N can then been
determined.
determined.
The procedure to construct Merchant circle diagram
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the
horizontal and vertical cutting force diagram
Frictional force system
Shear force system
Task:
• What is the importance of these theories ?
• Derive equation for these theories.
 Chip Formations

 During the machining process (3) basic types of

chips are formed:
◦ Discontinuous
◦ Continuous
◦ Continuous with a built-up edge (BUE)
 Chip Formation in Ductile Materials
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 Chip Formation in Ductile Materials
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 Chip Formation in Ductile Materials
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 Chip Formation in Ductile Materials
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 Chip Formation in Brittle Materials
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 Built Up Edge (BUE)
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 Built Up Edge (BUE)
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Shape, size and strength of BUE depends on:
• Work-tool materials
• Tool geometry
• Stresses and temperature
• Cutting fluid application

Effects of BUE formation:

• Unfavorable rake angle and consequences
• Fluctuation in cutting forces
• Poor surface finish
• May reduce tool life

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 Major Chips and Favorable Conditions
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 Discontinuous
 Typically associated with brittle metals like –Cast Iron
 As tool contacts work, some compression takes place
 As the chip starts up the chip-tool interference zone,
increased stress occurs until the metal reaches a saturation
point and fractures off the workpiece.
 Discontinuous
 Conditions which favor
this type of chip
◦ Brittle work material
◦ Small rake angles on cutting
tools
◦ Coarse machining feeds
◦ Low cutting speeds
◦ Major disadvantage—could
result in poor surface finish
Continuous
 Continuous “ribbon” of metal that flows up the
chip/tool zone.
 Usually considered the ideal condition for efficient
cutting action.
Continuous
 Conditions which favor this type of chip:
◦ Ductile work
◦ Fine feeds
◦ Sharp cutting tools
◦ Larger rake angles
◦ High cutting speeds
◦ Proper coolants
◦ Small chip thickness
 Continuous with a built-up
edge(BUE)
 Same process as continuous, but as the metal begins to
flow up the chip-tool zone, small particles of the metal
begin to adhere or weld themselves to the edge of the
cutting tool. As the particles continue to weld to the tool
it effects the cutting action of the tool.
 Continuous with a built-up
edge(BUE)
 This type of chip is common in
softer non-ferrous metals and
low carbon steels.
 Problems
◦ Welded edges break off and can
become embedded in workpiece
◦ Decreases tool life
◦ Can result in poor surface finishes
Types of Chip in Machining
Factors Influencing the Chip Formation Process

Tool
Material
Properties

Work
Machine
Material
tool
properties

Chip
Formation
Chip
Cutting
Control
Condition
device

Tool Cutting
Geometry Fluid
 Orthogonal and
Oblique Cutting

The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool are
the orthogonal (2D) and oblique (3D).

Orthogonal cutting takes place when the cutting face of the tool is 90
degree to the line of action of the tool.

If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to the line
of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.
 Orthogonal Vs Oblique Cutting

Work
Work
Feed
Feed Tool
Tool
Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting
Oblique Cutting:
Orthogonal Cutting:
• The cutting edge of the tool remains
 The cutting edge of the tool
inclined at an acute angle to the direction
remains normal to the direction of
of tool feed or work feed.
tool feed or work feed.
• The direction of the chip flow velocity is at
 The direction of the chip flow
an angle with the normal to the cutting
velocity is normal to the cutting
edge of the tool. The angle is known as
edge of the tool.
chip flow angle.
 Here only two components of
• Here three components of forces are
forces are acting: Cutting Force and
acting: Cutting Force, Radial force and
Thrust Force. So the metal cutting
Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal
may be considered as a two
cutting may be considered as a three
dimensional cutting.
dimensional cutting.
 The cutting edge being oblique, the shear
force acts on a larger area and thus tool
life is increased.
Cutting speed, Feed and Depth of cut
Cutting speed (m/min):
• Cutting speed of a cutting tool can be defined as the rate at which
its the cutting edge passes over the surface of workpiece in unit
time.
• It is normally expressed in terms of surface speed in meters per
minute (m/min).
• It considerable effects the tool life and efficiency of machining.
• If it is too high, the tool gets overheated and its cutting edge may
fail, needing regrinding.
• If it is too low, too much time is consumed in machining and full
cutting capacities of the tool and machine are not utilized, which
results in lowering of productivity and increasing the production
cost.
Feed rate (mm/rev):
• Feed of the cutting tool can be defined as the distance it travels
along or into the work piece for each pass of its point through a
particular position in unit time.
• For example, in turning operation on a lathe it is equal to the
advancement of the tool corresponding to each revolution of the
work.
• However, it is computed and mentioned in different machine tools
and different operations.
• For example, in planning it is the work which is fed and nit the tool.
• Similarly, in milling work involving the use of a multi-point cutter,
the feed is basically considered per tooth of the cutter.
The cutting speed and feed of a cutting tool is largely influenced
by the following factors.
Depth of cut:
• It is indicative of the penetration of the cutting edge of the tool
into the work piece material in each pass, measured
perpendicular to the machined surface.
• It determines the thickness of the metal layer removed by the
cutting tool in one pass.
• For example, in turning operation on a lathe
Where,
Where,
Cutting Tool Properties
• Hardness
– Cutting tool material must be 1 to 1/2 times
harder than the material it is being used to
machine.

• Capable of maintaining a red hardness

during machining operation
– Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to
maintain sharp cutting edge at elevated temp.
– It is also sometimes referred to as hot hardness
or hot strength
• Wear Resistance
– Able to maintain sharpened edge throughout
the cutting operation
– Same as abrasive resistance

• Shock Resistance
– Able to take the cutting loads and forces

• Shape and Configuration

– Must be available for use in different sizes and
shapes.