Fundamentals of Digital

Communication
 Digital communication system
Analog Digital
Input Low
Signal Source Channel
Pass Sampler Quantizer Multiplexer
Analog/ Encoder Encoder
Filter
Digital
Carrier

Pulse
Twisted Pair To Channel Modulator Shaping
Line
Encoder
Co-axial Cable Filters

Optical Fiber
Wireless
De- Receiver
From Channel Detector
Space Modulator Filter

Carrier Symbol timing

Recovery Recovery

Signal
Digital-to-Analog Channel De-
at the
Converter Decoder Multiplexer
user end

Analog Digital
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 Digital Modulation
• cost effective because of advances in digital technology
(VHDL, DSP, FPGA…)
• advantages/disadvantages vs analog
- better noise immunity
- robustness to channel impairments
- ability to multiplex information
- error control: detect & correct corrupt bits
- able to encrypt data
- flexible software modulation & demodulation
- requires complex signal conditioning
modulating signal (message) represented as pulses
• n bits represented by m finite states
• n = log2m
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Factors in Digital Modulation

• efficiency: low BER at low SNR

• channel: multipath & fading conditions
• minimize bandwidth required
• cost-effective & easy implementation

Performance Measures for Modulation Schemes

(i) p = power efficiency
(ii)B = bandwidth efficiency

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 (ii) Bandwidth Efficiency, B
Ability to accommodate data in limited bandwidth
• increasing data rate  requires increased bandwidth
• direct relationship to system capacity
• measured in terms of bit rate, Rb & RF bandwidth, B

B =Rb/B 6.36
Fundamental Upper Bound on achievable Bit Rate per given
Bandwidth (aka Shannon Bound)

Bmax = C/B
 S
Bmax = log2 1   6.37
 N
• C = maximum channel capacity (bps) 5
 Analog vs. Digital
x(t)
 Analog signals
 Value varies continuously
t
 Digital signals x(t)
 Value limited to a finite set

t
 Binary signals x(t) 1 1 1
 Has at most 2 values
 Used to represent bit values 0 T 0 0 0
 Bit time T needed to send 1 bit
 Data rate R=1/T bits per second t

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 Analog versus Digital

•Harder to separate noise from an analog

signal than from a digital signal

•If there is too much noise cannot

discern a high voltage from a low voltage
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 Analog versus Digital

 Regenerator receiver

Original Regenerated
pulse pulse

Propagation distance
 Different kinds of digital signal are treated identically.

Voice
Data A bit is a bit!
Media

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 Analog versus Digital

 Stability of components: Analog hardware change

due to component aging, heat, etc.

 Flexibility:
 Perform encryption

 Compression

 Error correction/detection

 Reliable reproduction

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 Bandwidth of signal
 Baseband versus bandpass:

Baseband Bandpass
signal signal
Local oscillator

 Bandwidth dilemma:
 Bandlimited signals are not realizable!
 Realizable signals have infinite bandwidth!
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 Sampling
Time domain Frequency domain
xs (t )  x (t )  x(t ) X s ( f )  X ( f )  X ( f )
x(t )
| X(f )|

x (t ) | X ( f ) |

xs (t )
| Xs( f ) |

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Aliasing effect

LP filter

Nyquist rate

aliasing

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 Sampling theorem

Analog Sampling Pulse amplitude

signal process modulated (PAM) signal

 Sampling theorem: A bandlimited signal with no

spectral components beyond , can be uniquely
determined by values sampled at uniform intervals of

 The sampling rate,

is called Nyquist rate.

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 Quantization
 Amplitude quantizing: Mapping samples of a continuous
amplitude waveform to a finite set of amplitudes.
Out

In
Average quantization noise power
Quantized

Signal peak power

values

Signal power to average

quantization noise power

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 Encoding (PCM)

 Pulse code modulation (PCM): Encoding the

quantized signals into a digital word (PCM word
or codeword).
 Each quantized sample is digitally encoded into an l
bits codeword where L in the number of quantization
levels and

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 Quantization example
amplitude
x(t)
111 3.1867

110 2.2762 Quant. levels

101 1.3657

100 0.4552

011 -0.4552 boundaries

010 -1.3657

001 -2.2762 x(nTs): sampled values

xq(nTs): quantized values
000 -3.1867
Ts: sampling time
PCM t
codeword 110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100 100 011 PCM sequence

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 Quantization error
 Quantizing error: The difference between the input and output
of a quantizer e(t )  xˆ (t )  x(t )
Process of quantizing noise
Qauntizer
Model of quantizing noise
y  q (x )
AGC x(t ) xˆ (t )
x(t ) xˆ (t )
x
e(t )

+
e(t ) 
xˆ (t )  x (t )
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 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

•Binary values are later converted to an analog signal

•Waveform similar to original results

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 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

•The more snapshots taken in the same amount of time, or

the more quantization levels, the better the resolution

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 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

•Because the human voice has a fairly narrow

bandwidth
•Telephone systems digitize voice into either 128
levels or 256 levels
•Called quantization levels
•If 128 levels, then each sample is 7 bits (2 ^ 7 = 128)
•If 256 levels, then each sample is 8 bits (2 ^ 8 = 256)

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 Pulse Code Modulation (continued)

•How fast do you have to sample an input

source to get a fairly accurate representation?

•Nyquist says 2 times the bandwidth

•Thus, if you want to digitize voice (4000 Hz),

you need to sample at 8000 samples per second

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 Delta Modulation
•An analog waveform is tracked using a binary 1 to
represent a rise in voltage and a 0 to represent a drop

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 Line Coding Formats
(Converting Data into Signals)

•Numerous techniques –
• NRZ-L
• NRZ-I
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester
• Bipolar AMI

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Converting Data into Signals
(continued)

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What is modulation
 Modulation is the process of encoding
information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission
 It involves translating a baseband message
signal to a bandpass signal at frequencies
that are very high compared to the baseband
frequency.
 Baseband signal is called modulating signal
 Bandpass signal is called modulated signal

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Modulation Techniques
 Modulation can be done by varying the
 Amplitude
 Phase, or
 Frequency
of a high frequency carrier in accordance with the
amplitude of the message signal.
 Demodulation is the inverse operation:
extracting the baseband message from the
carrier so that it may be processed at the
receiver.

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 Fundamentals of Signals

Amplitude
•Height of the wave above or
below a given reference point

Frequency
•Number of times a signal makes
complete cycle within a given
time frame
•Spectrum - Range of frequencies that a
signal spans from minimum to maximum
•Bandwidth - The absolute value of the
difference between the lowest and
highest frequencies of a signal

•For example, voice spectrum 300 - 3100 Hz 27

 Fundamentals of Signals (continued)

Phase
•Position of the waveform
relative to a given moment of
time or relative to time zero
•A change in phase can be
any number of angles
between 0 and 360 degrees
•Phase changes often occur
on common angles, such as
45, 90, 135, etc.

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Where do you need modulation ?

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ADSL

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 Formatting and transmission
of baseband signal
Digital info.

Textual Format
source info.
Pulse
Analog Transmit
Sample Quantize Encode modulate
info.

Pulse
Bit stream waveforms Channel
Format
Analog
info. Low-pass
Decode Demodulate/
filter Receive
Textual Detect
sink
info.

Digital info.

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 Modulation
-Transmitting Digital Data with Analog Signals

Three basic techniques:

• Amplitude shift keying

• Frequency shift keying

• Phase shift keying

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 Amplitude Shift Keying

•One amplitude encodes a 0 while another amplitude

encodes a 1 (a form of amplitude modulation)

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Amplitude Shift Keying (continued)

•Some systems use multiple amplitudes

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 Amplitude Shift Keying (continued)

Multiple Signal Levels

•Why use multiple signal levels?

•We can represent two levels with a single bit, 0 or 1
•We can represent four levels with two bits: 00, 01, 10, 11
•We can represent eight levels with three bits: 000, 001, 010,
011, 100, 101, 110, 111
•Note that the number of levels is always a power of 2

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 Frequency Shift Keying

•One frequency encodes a 0 while another frequency

encodes a 1 (a form of frequency modulation)

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 Phase Shift Keying

•One phase change encodes a 0 while another phase

change encodes a 1 (a form of phase modulation)

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 Phase Shift Keying (continued)

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

•Four different phase angles are used:
•45 degrees

•135 degrees

•225 degrees

•315 degrees

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Phase Shift Keying (continued)

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 Phase Shift Keying (continued)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

•12 different phases are combined with two different
amplitudes
•Since only 4 phase angles have 2 different
amplitudes, there are a total of 16 combinations.
•With 16 signal combinations, each baud equals 4
bits of information (2 ^ 4 = 16)

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Phase Shift Keying (continued)

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Thank you

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