Process Theories of Motivation

Types of Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation – Person is motivated to
work because of internal factors (ex.
existentialism) ; Motivated to work because the
person enjoys his/her job (ex. Social Worker,
Peace Corp.)
• Extrinsic Motivation – Person is motivated to
work because of external factors (ex. Money and
fame) ; Motivated to work because the person is
after the rewards or perks (ex. Call center agent)
 Expectency Theory (Vroom, 1964)
• Expectancy theory is the mental processes
regarding choice or choosing. It explains the
processes that a person undergoes to make
choices. In organizational behavior study,
expectancy theory is a motivation theory first
proposed by Victor Vroom.
 Three Concepts
• Valence: The value of the perceived outcome
(What's in it for me?)
• Instrumentality:  The belief that if I complete
certain actions then I will achieve the
outcome. (Clear path?) 
• Expectancy: The belief that I am able to
complete the actions. (My capability?)
• The three elements (V-E-I) are important behind
choosing one element over another because they
are clearly defined
• effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy),
E>P expectancy: Our assessment of the
probability our efforts will lead to the required
performance level
• performance-outcome expectancy (P>O
expectancy)..P>O expectancy: Our assessment of
the probability our successful performance will
lead to certain outcomes
 Example
• In order to enhance the performance-outcome
tie, managers should use systems that tie
rewards very closely to performance. Managers
also need to ensure that the rewards provided
are deserved and wanted by the recipients.
• In order to improve the effort-performance tie,
managers should engage in training to improve
their capabilities and improve their belief that
added effort will in fact lead to better
performance.
 Equity theory (Adams, 1963)
• Equity Theory attempts to explain relational
satisfaction in terms of perceptions of
fair/unfair distributions of resources within
interpersonal relationships. Equity theory is
considered as one of the justice theories
Definition of equity
Assumptions of Equity Theory applied
to business
• The three primary assumptions applied to most
business applications of Equity Theory can be
summarized as follows:
– Employees expect a fair return for what they contribute to
their jobs, a concept referred to as the “equity norm”.
– Employees determine what their equitable return should
be after comparing their inputs and outcomes with those
of their coworkers. This concept is referred to as “social
comparison”.
– Employees who perceive themselves as being in an
inequitable situation will seek to reduce the inequity
either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own
minds (“cognitive distortion”), by directly altering inputs
and/or outputs, or by leaving the organization. (Carrell and
Dittrich, 1978)
 Equity Sensitivity Construct
• The Equity Sensitivity Construct proposes that individuals have
different preferences for equity and thus react differently to
perceived equity and inequity. Preferences can be expressed on a
continuum from preferences for extreme under-benefit to
preferences for extreme over-benefit. Three archetypal classes are
as follows:
– Benevolents, those who prefer their own input/outcome ratios to be
less than those of their relational partner. In other words, the
benevolent prefers to be under-benefitted.
– Equity Sensitives, those who prefer their own input/outcome ratios to
be equal to those of their relational partner.
– Entitleds, those who prefer their own input/outcome ratios to exceed
those of their relational partner. In other words, the entitled prefers
to be over-benefitted. (Huseman, Hatfield & Miles, 1987)
 Fairness Model
• The Fairness Model proposes an alternative
measure of equity/inequity to the relational
partner or "comparison person" of standard
Equity Theory. According to the Fairness Model,
an individual judges the overall "fairness" of a
relationship by comparing their inputs and
outcomes with an internally derived standard.
The Fairness Model thus allows for the perceived
equity/inequity of the overarching system to be
incorporated into individuals' evaluations of their
relationships (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978).
 Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, n.d.)
• Locke derived the idea for goal-setting from
Aristotle’s form of final causality. Aristotle
speculated that purpose can cause action;
thus, Locke began researching the impact
goals have on individual activity of its time
performance.
 Concept
• Setting goals affects outcomes in four ways:
– Choice: goals narrow attention and direct efforts to
goal-relevant activities, and away from perceived
undesirable and goal-irrelevant actions.
– Effort: goals can lead to more effort; for example, if
one typically produces 4 widgets an hour, and has the
goal of producing 6, one may work more intensely
than one would otherwise in order to reach the goal.
– Persistence: An individual becomes more prone to
work through setbacks if pursuing a goal.
– Cognition: goals can lead an individual to develop
cognitive strategies to change their behavior.
 Goal–performance relationship
• Locke et al. (1981) examined the behavioral effects of
goal-setting, concluding that 90% of laboratory and
field studies involving specific and challenging goals led
to higher performance than did easy or no goals
• A goal is vital because it facilitates an individual in
focusing their efforts in a specified direction. In other
words; goals canalize behavior. When goals are
established at a management level and laid down,
employee motivation with regard to achieving these
goals is rather suppressed. In order to increase
motivation the employees not only need to be allowed
to participate in the goal setting process but the goals
have to be challenging as well.
 Moderators
• These success factors are not to be seen
independently.
– Goal commitment 
– Feedback
– Task complexity 
– Employee motivation 
 Power and Influence in
Organizations
• What is Power?.. Is often used in a negative
way, even though power is not inherently bad
or evil. Power represents a person’s potential
or capacity to influence others.
 4 Forms
• Compliance – represents a situation in which an
influence attempt is successful to the extent that the
target of influence does what is requested, but does
not necessarily do it willingly
• Identification –Employee does what the leader
wants, primarily because he or she likes the leader.
• Private Acceptance/Internalization – The employee
does what the leader wants because he or she
believes that it is the right thing to do.
• Resistance – Employee simply does not do what the
leader asks.
 Bases of Power
• Coercive Power – the basis of the influence is the
fact that one person can punish another.
• Reward Power – This is essentially the opposite
of coercive power.
• Legitimate Power – Power emanates from the
position that one holds in an organization.
• Expert Power – This power is based on the fact
that a person is perceived to be an expert on
something
• Referent Power – this power is based on
subordinates’ liking of a leader, that is,
surbordinates do what the leaders wants because
the like him/her.
• Informational Power – power that has something to
do with knowing high-quality information that will
be convincing to subordinates.
• Ownership Power – power from being a
stakeholder, owner, or any connection with top
management
• Prestige Power – this represents the extent to
which a person has acquired prestige and status
outside of the organization.
 Influence Tactics
• Rational Persuasion – simply involves providing,
to the target of influences, a logical explanation
of why a given request is being made.
• Inspirational Appeals – used by a person doing
the influencing attempts to appeal to the
target’s values or ideals, and to persuade that
person that he or she will be able to get
something done
• Consultation – influences subordinates by
seeking their assistance in an activity for which
joining is crucial.
• Ingratiation – attempts to influence subordinates by
putting them in a good mood before making a
request.
• Exchange – offers subordinates something in return
for complying with a request or offers them a share
of the benefits that will come out when the task is
done.
• Personal Appeal – appeals loyalty and friendship
before making a request
• Coalition – seeking the aid of others to directly
persuade a subordinate to comply with a request.
• Legitimating – seeks to establish the legitimacy of
his/her request (can also cite org policies/rules)
• Pressure – involves the use of demands, threats, or
persistent monitoring to make subordinates comply
with a request
 Organization Politics
• Impression Management
• Information Management
• Promotion of the Opposition
• Pursuing line responsibility