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Presented by:
Bhanuchandar. D
Dept of Prosthodontics

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 Contents
• Introduction
• History
• Steps in casting procedure
• Sprue formers
• Crucible formers
• Casting rings and ring liners
• Investing procedure
• Wax burnout
• Casting of alloys into mold
• Casting of titanium alloys
• Cleaning of casting
• Casting defects
• Conclusion

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Introduction

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 History
• This meticulous procedure of casting
was used to produce jewelry and
ornaments.
• 3500 B.C. – Egyptians first
manufactured refractories which in the
form of glass vessels around a
refractory core of mud, sand, and animal
dung.
• 11th Century  Theophilus  Described
lost wax technique, which was a common
practice in jewelry.
• 1558  B. Cellini  have
attempted use of wax and clay for
preparation of castings.

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• 1897  Phillibrook described a method
of casting metal filling
• 1907 – William. H .Taggart introduced
the lost wax technique in dentistry.
• 1949 – Moore and Walt developed
phosphate bonded investment.
• 1959 - Asgar & Peyton stated that
flaring should occur at the sprue/wax
pattern junction
• 1959 - Strickland et al stated the
importance of the type, shape location &
direction other than the size of the
sprue
• 1959 - Morrison and Warmick reported
the findings of ethyl silicate refractory
material for dental use.
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Steps involved in the casting

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 Spruing

Sprue former:

A wax, plastic or metal used to form the

channel or channels which allows molten metal
to flow into a mold to make casting.

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• Purpose of the sprue former
• Requirements of the sprue
former

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Sprue materials:

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Advantages of hollow sprue former:
• It increases the contact area.
• It holds less heat than the solid sprue
former.

 “Care must be taken to examine the

orifice for small particles of investment
that may break off while removing the
metal sprue former.”

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 Sprue former diameter:

• The diameter and length of the sprue

former depends on:
- The type and size of the pattern.
- The type of casting machine to be
used.
- The dimensions of the casting rings in
which casting is made.

• Pre fabricated sprue former are available

in a wide variety of gauge from 6 to
18.

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• Usually  for molar and metal ceramic
restoration - 10-gauge (2.5mm)
 Premolars and partial
coverage restoration - 12-gauge
(2.0mm)

• A narrow sprue may be useful in air

pressure casting procedure where the
metal is melted in conical depression
formed by crucible former. so narrow
sprue prevention premature metal flow
into mold.

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 Reservoir:

• Reservoir is a small amount of

additional wax added to the sprue
former 1mm below the wax pattern.

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 Sprue former length:
• The length of the sprue former - it
keeps the wax pattern 6mm from the

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 Sprue former position:
• The ideal area- point of greatest bulk in
the pattern.

• The point of attachment should permit

stream of metal to be directed to all
parts of the mold without having to flow
opposite the direction of casting force

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Sprue former direction:
Attached 45 degrees to the walls
of mold, which decreases the
turbulence of molten alloy.

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 Attachment morphology:

• The attachment of sprue former

to the wax pattern should be
smooth and do not posses pits or
irregularities.

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 Spruing

Direct Indirect

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 Vents

• Vents are the additional sprues placed at

thin or thick wax patterns to improve
the quality of the casting.

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 Auxillary sprue

• For large casting an additional auxillary

sprue may be placed for filling the mold.
• Usually 14 to 16 gauge sprue are used.

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 Crucible former
They are available as:
Rubber, Metallic and Plastic

They are of two types:

1) Steep sided cone- to cast metal
using centrifugal casting force
2) Shallow cone- cast metal using
stream or air pressure

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 Casting rings
• Casting rings are used to confine the
fluid investment around the wax
pattern while the investment sets. And
…….
• Considerations in selection of casting
rings:

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They are available as:
1) Shapes - Round
- Oval
2) Complete rings –
Rigid - Metal
- Plastic
Flexible - Rubber
3) Split rings - Metal
- Plastic

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 Ring less casting system:
- plastic rings which is conical in shape with
tapering walls are used.
- Used for traditional gold-base alloys.

Flexible rings Split casting rings

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Casting ring liner

Materials used are:

- Asbestos liner
- Cellulose liner
- Ceramic liner
- Combination of ceramic
and cellulose liner

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Function of casting ring
liner:
• Allow uniform expantion.
• In case of wet liner
technique- hygroscopic
expansion.
• Thickness of the liner should
be less than 1mm.

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 Investing

The process of covering or enveloping

an object such as a denture, tooth, wax form, crown,
with a suitable investment material before processing, or casting

.
Investment materials are:
1. Gypsum bonded investment
2. Phosphate bonded investment
3. Ethyl silicate bonded investment

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 •The wax pattern should
not stand for more than
20-30 min
before being invested.
So, it is best to invest
the wax pattern as soon
as possible

-Thin film of cleaner on pattern

reduces surface tension of wax
better “wetting” of wax pattern
by the investment.

-Some of the commercially available

debubblizing agents can be used.
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• Investment mixing:
1. Hand mixing
2. Vacuum mixing

Bubble free casting with different

technique-
17% - open investment
95% - vacuum investment
• Advantage of vacuum mixing:

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Setting of investment:

• After mixing the investment is poured

in to the casting ring up to its rim.
• For hygroscopic expansion technique
• For controlled water added technique
• For Thermal expansion technique

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Wax elimination or burn out

• It is advisable to begin the burnout

procedure while the mould is still wet.
 Water trapped in the pores of the
investment reduces the absorption of
wax.
 As the water vaporizes it flushes wax
from the mold.

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• Purpose of burn out:
• Heat application:
• Heating of ring should be done
slowly.
- Hygroscopic low-heat technique
- High-heat thermal expansion
technique

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Hygroscopic low-heat technique
• The temperature used in this
technique is 500°c for 60-90 mins.
• Obtain compensation expansion from
three sources:
1. Immersion of investment in 37°c water bath.
2. The warm water entering the investment mold
from the top adds some of the expansion.
3. The thermal expansion at 500°c
• This technique causes 0.55% of
expansion.

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High-heat thermal expansion
technique

Gypsum bonded Investment :

• The investment is slowly heated to

650°c - 700°c in 60mins. Then
maintained for 15-30 mins at this
temperature.
• Above 700°c sulfur dioxide
- Contaminates gold castings and makes
them extremely brittle

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Phosphate bonded investment :

• They need higher 2nd stage

temperature for -
- total elimination of wax
- and Prevent premature
solidification of higher melting alloys.
• After initial slow raise of temp to
315°c, the temperature is rapidly
raised to 750-900°c and maintained
for 30 mins.
• The technique cause 1.33-1.58 % of
Thermal expansion
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 Accelerated casting method
(J Prost dent. 66: 155,1991)

• To reduce the total time, Alternative

Accelerated casting technique is
proposed that uses phosphate bonded
investment which sets in 15 mins and
then 15 min burn out is done at 815°c.

• This method is used for preparing post

and core restorations

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 Something that has been cast in a mold;
An object formed by the solidification of a fluid
that has been poured or injected into a mold

HEAT SOURCES: two basic modes-

• Torch flame - Gas air torch

- Gas oxygen torch
- Oxy acetylene torch
- hydrogen oxygen generator
• Electricity

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Two type of torch tips:
1. Multi-orifice
2.Single-orifice

Zones of the blow touch

flame:
• Zone 1 - colorless zone
• Zone 2 – Combustion
zone
• Zone 3 - Reducing
zone
• Zone 4 - oxidizing zone

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Two types of flame can be obtained
with a casting torch:

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The changes seen in metal during fusing are :

• Initially appear spongy later small

globules of fused metal appear  later
molten metal flows assuming a spherical
shape  at proper casting temperature
the molten alloy is light orange and tend
to spin or follow.

• At this stage the temperature of molten

alloy is 38°c above its liquidus
temperature.
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• During melting of the gold alloys flux
may be added-
- Minimizing porosity
- To increase fusing of metal
- Prevent oxidation
• Commonly used fluxes are fused borax
powder ground with boric acid power.
• Charcoal

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Gas air torch: -
• To melt conventional noble metal alloys
(used for inlays, crown and bridge)
whose melting points less than 1000°c
Gas–oxygen torch:
• Used to melt metal ceramic alloys of
higher temperature up to 1200°c .
Oxy-acetylene torch :
• One volume of acetylene and two and
half volume of oxygen are needed.

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They are:
• Oxidizing flame - 6000°F
• Carburizing flame - 5400°F
• Neutral flame - 5600°F

If distance is reduced to -
7.5 mm  slight porosity
5 mm  increased porosity due to
occluded H2 gas.

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Casting machines
1. Air pressure casting
machines:
Alloy is melted in situ in
crucible hollow of the
ring, followed by applied
air pressure.
2. Centrifugal casting
machine:
Alloy is melted in a
crucible, and forced in to
mold by centrifugal
force.

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3.Electrical resistance -
heated casting machine :-
• It is used to melt ceramic
alloys. Here the alloy is
automatically melted in
graphite crucible.
• The crucible in the
furnace is always against
the casting ring. So the
metal button remain
molten slightly longer and
ensures complete
solidification.

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Direct-current arc melting machine:-
• Produce between two electrodes: the
alloys and the water cooled tungsten
electrode.
• > 4000°C – alloy melts very quickly.
• High risk of over heating of the alloy.

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4. Induction melting machine:
• Metal is melted by an induction field
that developed with in the crucible
surrounded by water- cooled metal
tubing.

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• The electric induction furnace is a
transformer in which an alternating current
flows through the primary winding coil and
generates a variable magnetic field in the
location of the alloy to be melted in a
crucible
• It is more commonly used for melting
base metal alloys not been used for noble
alloy casting as much as other machines

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 Casting force:
• Casting force > Surface tension of alloy
+ Resistance offered by gas in the mold.

• This can be done by use of following

different type of force
• Vacuum force
• Air or Gas Pressure
• Centrifugal force

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Sufficient mass of alloy must be present to
sustain adequate casting pressure
• 6g is typically adequate for premolar and
anterior casting
• 10g is adequate for molar casting
• 12 g is adequate for pontic

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 CASING OF TITANIUM ALLOYS

• Titanium offers lot of advantages and

can be used for casting.

Problems associated are:

• High melting point of titanium of
1671°C (when other dental casting alloys
have liquidus temperature below 1500°
C).
• Tendency for the molten metal absorbs
several gases in molten state.

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• 1977 – Walter start :- casted Ti alloy
as crown and bridges and R. P. D.
frame work.
• A new pressure / vacuum casting
machine was developed. With argon –
arc system for melting alloy.
• Molten alloy drawn into the mold by
gravity or vacuum & subjected to
additional pressure to force the alloy
into the mold

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 Casting Crucible

They are of 3 types:

• Clay Crucibles
• Carbon Crucibles
• Quartz Crucibles (zircon-alumina)

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• Traditionally a wet lining of asbestos
sheet was used on casting crucible. The
moistened asbestos sheet provides a
clean and good surface on which the
alloy could be melted.

• Advantages is, prevent alloy

contamination with oxides and residuals
that may be present in the crucible

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 Cleaning of the casting

• Consider the gold crown & bridge alloys.

• After casting has been completed, ring is
removed & quenched in water.
Advantages:
1. Noble metal is left in an annealed
condition for burnishing & Polishing.
2.When water contacts hot investment,
violent reaction ensues. Investment
becomes soft, granular & casting is more
easily cleaned.

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PICKLING:

• Surface of the casting appears dark with

oxides and tarnish. Such a surface film
can be removed by a process called
Pickling.
• Best method for pickling is to place a
casting in a dish & pour acid over it.
• Heat the acid but don't boil it.

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 Hydrochloric acid
 Sulfuric acid
 Ultrasonic devices
• Gold and palladium based metal ceramic
alloys and base metals, these alloys are
not generally pickled.

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• Casting is both an art and science governed by numerous
rules, or “laws”.
• Based on earlier work of Ingersoll & Wandling (1986),
W. Patrick Naylor formulated an expanded set of 17
separate recommendations for Spruing, investing,
burnout, and melting and casting procedures.
• Collectively these guidelines are referred to as the laws
of casting.

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 Attach the pattern Sprue former to the thickest part
of the wax pattern

Orient the wax pattern so all the restoration margins will face
the trailing edge when the ring is positioned in the casting machine

Position the wax pattern in a “cold zone” of the investment mold

and the reservoir in the “heat centre” of the casting ring

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A reservoir must have sufficient molten alloy to accommodate
the shrinkage that occurs within the restorations

Do not cast a button if a connector (runner) bar,

or other internal reservoir, is used

Turbulence must be minimized, if not totally eliminated

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 Select a casting ring of sufficient length and diameter
to accommodate the patterns to be invested

Increase the wettability of the wax patterns

Weigh any bulk investment and measure the investment liquid

for a precise powder-liquid ratio

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 Eliminate the incorporation of air in the casting investment and
remove the ammonia gas by product of phosphate-bonded investments
by mixing under vacuum

Allow the casting investment to set completely before

initiating the burnout procedure

Use a wax elimination (burnout) technique that is specific for

the type patterns involved (wax versus plastic)
and recommended for the particular type of casting alloy selected

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 Adequate heat must be available to properly melt
and cast the alloy

When torch casting, use the “reducing zone” of the flame

to melt the alloy and not the oxidizing zone

Provide enough force to cause the liquid alloy

to flow onto the heated mold

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 Cast toward the margins of the wax patterns

Do not quench the ring immediately after casting

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 Classification

According to Anusavice
• Distortion
• Surface roughness and irregularities
• Porosity
• Incomplete or missing details
Based on location
• Internal
• external

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According to Rosensteil
• Roughness

• Nodules

• Fins

• Incompleteness

• Voids or porosity

• Marginal discrepancy

• Dimensional inaccuracies

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 Distortion
• Distortion of the casting probably related to
distortion of the wax pattern.
Causes:
• Can occur from the time of pattern preparation
to the time of investing due to stress
relaxation.
• Distortion of the wax pattern occurs during the
investment procedure.

Minimized by:

 Application of minimum pressure

 Manipulation of wax at high temperature
 Investing pattern immediately
 If storage is necessary, store in refrigerator
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 Surface Roughness and
Irregularities
surface roughness
Defined as relatively finely spaced surface
imperfections whose height, width and direction
establish the predominant surface pattern.

Surface irregularities
Isolated imperfections such as nodules that are not
characteristic of the entire surface area

• The surface roughness of the casting is > wax pattern

- the particle size of the investment and its ability to
reproduce the pattern in microscopic detail

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Air bubbles:
• Small nodules on the casting

Prevented By:
– Proper investment technique
– Vibration of mix or by vacuum mixing
– Application of wetting agent properly and
correctly – important that it be applied in a
thin layer.

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Water films:
• If the Investment becomes separated from the
wax pattern, a water film may form irregularly
over the surface.
• Appears as minute ridges or veins on the
surface.
Prevented By:
1.Use of wetting agent
2.Correct L/P ratio (Too high L/P ratio may
produce these irregularities)

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Rapid Heating Rates
Causes:
• Fins or spines
• Flaking of the investment
Prevented by:
• Heat gradually at least 60min from room
temperature to 700°c.
• Greater the bulk – more slowly heated.

Under heating
• Incomplete elimination of wax residues.

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Prolonged heating
• Decomposition of the investment

Liquid/Powder Ratio
• The amount of water and powder measure
should be accurate.

Casting pressure
• To high pressure – rough surface of the casting
• To low pressure – incomplete casting
• Average – 0.01 to 0.14 Mpa and 3 to 4 turns of
the spring.

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Foreign bodies
• Any casting that shows sharp, well- defined
deficiencies indicates the presence of some
foreign particles in the mold. They may be:
- Pieces of the investment
- Bits of the carbon from the flux
- Sulfur components from – decomposition
of the gypsum investment and high sulfur content
torch flame.
Pattern position
• Should not place too close together
• Should not place many patterns in same plane
Space between the pattern is atleast 3mm

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Impact of metal alloy
Cause:
• The direct impact of molten alloy may fracture or
abrade the mold surface regardless of its bulk. It
results ……..
Prevented by:
• This type of surface roughness or irregularities
can be avoided by proper spruing.
Carbon inclusions
• Carbon from- carbon crucible, carbon
containing investment – absorbed by the alloys
during casting results in formation of carbides or
visible carbon inclusion.
Other causes
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 porosity

Classified as follows:

I. Solidification defects
A. localized shrinkage porosity
B. Micro porosity
II. Trapped gases
A. pin hole porosity
B. gas inclusion porosity
C. sub surface porosity
III. Residual porosity

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Localized shrinkage porosity
Cause:
• By premature termination of the molten metal
during solidification.
• Porosity in the pontic is caused by- retain heat
because of its bulk and located in the center of the
rings.

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Suck back porosity – Interior of the crown
near the area of the sprue create a hot spot on the
mold wall

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Pin hole and Gas inclusion porosity

• Characterized by spherical contour, but gas

inclusion porosities are much larger than pin hole
porosity.
• Occur primarily because most metals dissolve
gases when molten these gases expelled during
solidification..
• Also be caused by gas occluded from a poorly
adjusted torch flame or use of oxidizing zone
rather than reducing zone.
• Casting is usually black, do not clean easily on
pickling

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Sub surface porosity
• Caused by simultaneous nucleation of solid
grains and gas bubbles at the first moment that
the alloy freezes at mold walls
• Prevented by controlling the rate at which the
molten metal enters the mold.

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Back pressure porosity
• Some times referred to as entrapped-air
porosity.
• The entrapment is frequently found in a “POCKET”
at the cavity surface of a crown or MOD casting.
• Also found on the outer surface of the casting when
the casting or mold temperature is low, that
solidification occurs before the trapped air can
escape.
• Thickness of the investment
• Incomplete elimination of wax residues.

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Prevented by:
• Proper burnout
• Sufficiently high casting pressure
• Investment of adequate porosity
• Adequate L/P ratio
• Adequate mold and casting temperature.
• Thickness of investment between tip of pattern
and end of ring is not greater than 6mm.

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 In complete casting
• Factors that inhibit the mold filling is:
1. In sufficient venting
2. In sufficient casting pressure
3. Incomplete elimination of wax
4. Lower L/p ratio
5. Viscosity of the fused metal

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Viscosity of the fused metal:
• In complete casting resulting from too greater
viscosity is due to insufficient heating of the
alloy.
• However, both the surface tension and the
viscosity of the molten alloys are reduced by
increased in temperature higher than its
liquidus temperature

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Page 89
 Reference
• K. J. Anusavice, Phillips Science of Dental
Materials, 11th edition
• Introduction to metal ceramic technology, W.P.
Naylor
• Craig R.G, Restorative Dental Materials;10th
edition
• Rudd and morrow, Dental laboratory procedures-
removable partial denture, 2nd edition
• Rudd and morrow, Dental laboratory procedure-
fixed partial denture,
• John j. manappallil, basic dental materials, 2nd
edition
• Rosensteil, Contemporary fixed Prosthodontics
• Shillinburg, fundamentals of fixed Prosthodontics
• JPD- 1978; 3, 137-14
• internet Page 90
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