Circuit Switching and

Telephone Network
Switching
Connecting multiple devices together through
various topologies would be useful only in small
networks but in large networks, it will be too costly
and impractical. Switching provides a solution to this
problem.
Switches – interlinked nodes
– hardware/software devices capable of
creating temporary connections between two or
more devices linked to the switch but not to
each other. In a switched network, some are
connected to communicating devices and
some are for routing
Types of Switching

Switching

Circuit Packet Message

Circuit Switching
 creates a direct physical connection between
two devices such as phones or computers
 A device with n inputs and m outputs that
creates a temporary connection between input
and output
Circuit Switching - Folded Switch

 An n by n folded switch can connect n lines in

full duplex mode
Circuit Switching Technologies
Space Division Switching

Time Division Switching

 Space Division Switching
 Paths in the circuit are separated from each
other spatially
 Designed for analog networks but can also be
used in digital networks

 Types
 Crossbar

 Multistage
 Space Division Switching
 Crossbar
 connects n inputs to m outputs using
electronic micro-switches at each crosspoint
 limitation: no. of crosspoints required
n x m crosspoints
 Space Division Switching
 Multistage
 combines crossbar switches in several stages
 devices are linked to switches that are linked to
other switches
 design depends on the number of stages and
the number of switches required in each stage
Space Division Switching
 Multistage
 two possible options
Space Division Switching
 Crossbar vs Multistage
 Crossbar: 15x15 = 225 crosspoints
 Multistage:
o Three 1st stage switches = 3 x 5 x 2 = 30
o Two 2nd stage switches = 2 x 3 x 3 = 18
o Three 3rd stage switches = 3 x 5 x 2 = 30
o Total = 78 crosspoints
Space Division Switching
 Reduction in the number of crosspoints results
in blocking (when one input cannot be
connected to an output because there is no
available path)
 Crossbar does not experience blocking except
when trying to contact same output (busy)
 In multistage, increasing the number of stages
will increase also the possible blocking
 Time Division Switching
 Uses TDM to achieve switching

 Two methods:
o Time-slot interchange
o TDM bus
 Time Division Switching
 Time-Slot Interchange
 changes the ordering of the slots based on
the desired connections
 Time Division Switching
 Time-Slot Interchange
 TSI consists of random access memory
(RAM) with several memory locations
 Size of each location is the same as the
number of inputs
 RAM fills up the incoming data from time
slots in the order received
 Slots are then sent out in an order based on
the decisions of a control unit
Time Division Switching
 TDM Bus
 Input and output lines
are connected to a high
speed bus through input
and output gates
(microswitches)
 Control unit opens and
closes the gates
according to the
switching need in a given
time slot
 Space and Time Division
Combination
 Space Division
 Advantage: instantaneous
 Disadvantage: no. of crosspoints required

 Time Division
 Advantage: needs no crosspoints
 Disadvantage: with TSI, processing each
connection creates delays
 Space and Time Division
Combination
 Possible Combinations
 Time-Space-Time (TST)
 Time-Space-Space-Time (TSST)
 Space-Time-Time-Space (STTS)

Ave. delay =
1/3 TSI
 Telephone Network
 Uses circuit switching
 Plain Old Telephone System (POTS) – analog
system

 Major Components
 Telephone Network
 Local Loops – twisted pair cable that connects
subscriber telephone to nearest central office;
1st three digits: central office
Next four digits: local loop number
 Trunks – transmission medium that links the
central offices through multiplexing (optical
fibers or satellite)
 Switching Office – connects several local loops
or trunks and allows a connection between
different subscribers
 Telephone Network
 Local Access Transport Areas (LATAs)
 it can be a small or large metropolitan area
 Intra-LATA Services – services offered by the
common carriers (telephone companies)
 Local Exchange Carrier (LEC) – carrier that
handles intra-LATA services
 Incumbent Local Exchange Carrier (ILEC) –
owns the cabling system (local loops)
 Competitive Local Exchange Carrier (CLEC) –
new carriers that can provide services
 Telephone Network

 Communication inside LATA is handled by end

switches and tandem switches
 Toll-free – call that can be completed by using
only end offices
 Charged – call that has to go through a tnade,m
office (Intra-LATA toll office)
 Telephone Network
 Inter-Exchange Carriers (IXCs) ~ Long Distance
Companies – handles services between LATAs;
long distance carriers that provide general data
communications services
 Point of Presence (POPs) – means of carriers
(LECs and IXCs) that lets them communicate
with one another
Each IXC that wants to provide inter-LATA
services must have a POP
Telephone Network
Telephone Network
 Accessing the switching station at the end
offices is accomplished through dialing.
Telephone Network
 Analog Services
o Analog Switched Service
 familiar dial up service like home
telephone
 call is conveyed to a switch at the
exchange
 Local call services – provided for a flat
rate
 Toll Call Services – intra or inter-LATA
 800 services – if organization needs to
provide free connections for customers
(free for caller but paid by the callee)
Telephone Network
 Analog Services
o Analog Switched Service
 WATS (Wide Area Telephone Service) –
opposite of 800 service. Outbound calls are
paid by caller, and charges are based on the
number of calls
 900 services – like 800 services where
calls are inbound to a subscriber but the
call is paid by the caller. There is a charge
on long distance toll and there is a fee paid
to the callee for each call. (Call centers)
Telephone Network
 Analog Services
o Analog Leased Service
 offers customers to lease a line (dedicated
line) that is permanently connected to
another customer (switch is always closed
so no dialing is needed)
Telephone Network
Digital Services
less sensitive than analog services to noise
and interference
o Switched/56
 digital version of analog switched line
 Allows data rates of up to 56 Kbps
 Both parties must subscribe
 subscribers don’t need modems to
transmit digital data (line is already digital)
 needs Digital Service Unit (DSU) that
changes the rate of the digital data to 56
Kbps and encodes them in the format of the
service provider.
Telephone Network
Digital Services
o Digital Data Service (DDS)
 digital version of analog leased line
 Allows data rates of up to 64 Kbps
 High Speed
Digital Access
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Provides higher speed access to the
Internet
 Types of xDSL
 ADSL
 VDSL
 HDSL
 SDSL
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
o Provides higher bit rate in the downstream than

the upstream
o It is not suitable for business customers who

needs a large BW in both directions but for

residential users
o Uses existing local loop (1.1 MHz w/o filter)

o Uses an adaptive technology that tests the

condition and BW availability of the line before

settling on a data rate that is based on the local
loop of the line
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
o Discrete Multitone Technique (DMT) –

modulation technique of ADSL that

combines QAM and FDM.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)

o Actual bit rate: Upstream – 64 Kbps to 1 Mbps

Downstream – 500 Kbps to 8 Mbps
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Symmetrical DSL (SDSL)
o Designed for businesses that send and

receive data in large volumes in both

directions
o Divides the available BW equally between

the downstream and upstream

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 High-Bit-Rate DSL (HDSL)
o Designed as an alternative to T-1 line (due

to attenuation at high frequencies)

o T-1 line is limited only to 1 Km, hence, for

longer distances, a repeater is needed

o HDSL uses 2B1Q encoding instead of AMI

o Distance increases up to 3.6 Km.

o It uses two twisted pair wires to achieve

full duplex transmission

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Very-High-Bit-Rate DSL (VDSL)
o Similar to ADSL and it uses coaxial, fiber

optic or twisted pair for short distances

(300 to 1800 m)
o Modulating technique is DMT with a bit rate

of 50 to 55 Mbps (downstream) and 1.5 to

2.5 Mbps (upstream)
Cable Modem
 Uses Coaxial Cable rather than UTP
 It started as CATV (Community Antenna TV)

Communication is
unidirectional
Cable Modem
 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Uses combination of fiber optic and coaxial
cable
o Regional cable head (RCH) normally serves
up to 400,000 subscribers
 Cable Modem
 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Distribution hubs
 can serve up to 40,000 subscribers
 It is where modulation and distribution of signals
is done
o Each coax serves up to 1000 subscriber
o The use of fiber optic cables reduces the
number of usage of amplifier
o The system is bi-directional Us
Us es
es 64
QP QA
SK M
 Cable Modem
 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o 6 bits for each baud (1 bit for forward error
correction; 5 bits of data)
o Theoretical downstream data is 30 Mbps
o Theoretical upstream data is 12 Mbps
o Upstream Sharing
 BW is only 37 MHz (six 6 MHz channels)
 Upstream is shared using timesharing where the
band is divided into channels using FDM
 Cable Modem
 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Downstream Sharing
 33 - 6 MHz channels
 Multicasting situation (each subscriber is sent the
data)
o Key devices for data transmission
o Cable Modem (CM) – similar to ADSL modems
o Cable Modem Transmission System (CMTS)
receives data from the internet and passes them to
the combiner which delivers them to subscriber
 Cable Modem
 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
 Cable Modem
 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)

Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Data Transmission Schemes: DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
System Interface Specification)
 Defines all the protocols necessary to transport data from CMTS to
CM
 Upstream Communication Protocol
1. CM checks the downstream channels for a specific packet
periodically sent by CMTS
2. CMTS sends a packet to the CM defining its allocated
downstream and upstream channels
3. CM starts ranging (determines the distance between the CM and
CMTS). This is required for synchronization of minislots for
timesharing.

Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Data Transmission Schemes: DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
System Interface Specification)
 Upstream Communication Protocol
4. CM sends a packet to the ISP asking for Internet address

5. CM and CMTS exchange some packets to establish security

parameters (for cable TV)
6. CM sends unique identifier to the CMTS

7. Upstream communication can start in the allocated

upstream channel (CM can contend for the minislots to send
data)
 Downstream: no contention since only one sender
 Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 It is ANSI standard
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) – ITU-T standard
 Single clock is used to handle the timing of transmissions
and equipment across the entire network that enables
predictability
 SONET contains recommendations for the standardization
of Fiber Optic Transmission System (FOTS)
 It has mechanisms that allow it to carry signals from
incompatible tributary systems (DS0/DS1)
 Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 It uses TDM
 It is a synchronous system controlled by a
master clock with a very high level of accuracy
 SONET devices
o Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)

multiplexers
o Regenerators (Repeaters)

o Add/Drop Multiplexers
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 SONET Frame
o Matrix of nine rows of 90 octets each (810
octets)
o First three columns – used for administration
overhead
o The rest of the frame is called Synchronous
Payload Envelope (SPE) – it contains
transmission overhead and user data
 Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 SONET Frame
 Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 SONET Frame
o Payload can start anywhere in the frame and can
even span two frames
o If the SPE arrives a little late, it does not have to wait
for the beginning of the next frame
o Pointer address from columns 1 to 3 can determine
the beginning address
o Frames are transmitted one after another without any
gap in between
 Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
 SONET Frame
o Alignment bytes – first 2 bytes of each frame; it defines the
beginning of each frame
o Third byte is frame idetification
 Synchronous Transport Signals
o Optical Carriers (OC) – physical links defined to carry each
level of STS
o OC levels describe the conceptual and physical
specifications of the links required to support each level of
signaling.
 SONET

 SONET
 Virtual Tributaries
o SONET is designed to carry broadband payloads
o Virtual tributaries are used to make SONET
backward compatible with the current hierarchy
(DS-1 to DS-3)
o It is a partial payload that can be inserted into a
frame and combined with other partial payloads
to fill out the frame

SONET
Virtual Tributaries
o VT1.5 accommodates DS-1 service
8000 frames/s x 3 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 1.728 Mbps
o VT2 accommodates European CEPT-1 service
8000 frames/s x 6 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 2.304 Mbps
o VT3 accommodates DS-1C service
8000 frames/s x 9 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 3.456 Mbps
o VT6 accommodates DS-2 service
8000 frames/s x 12 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 6.912 Mbps
SONET
 Higher Rate Services