Circuit Switching and
Telephone Network
Switching
Connecting multiple devices together through
various topologies would be useful only in small
networks but in large networks, it will be too costly
and impractical. Switching provides a solution to this
problem.
Switches – interlinked nodes
– hardware/software devices capable of
creating temporary connections between two or
more devices linked to the switch but not to
each other. In a switched network, some are
connected to communicating devices and
some are for routing
Types of Switching
Switching
Circuit Packet Message
Circuit Switching
creates a direct physical connection between
two devices such as phones or computers
A device with n inputs and m outputs that
creates a temporary connection between input
and output
Circuit Switching - Folded Switch
An n by n folded switch can connect n lines in
full duplex mode
Circuit Switching Technologies
Space Division Switching
Time Division Switching
Space Division Switching
Paths in the circuit are separated from each
other spatially
Designed for analog networks but can also be
used in digital networks
Types
Crossbar
Multistage
Space Division Switching
Crossbar
connects n inputs to m outputs using
electronic micro-switches at each crosspoint
limitation: no. of crosspoints required
n x m crosspoints
Space Division Switching
Multistage
combines crossbar switches in several stages
devices are linked to switches that are linked to
other switches
design depends on the number of stages and
the number of switches required in each stage
Space Division Switching
Multistage
two possible options
Space Division Switching
Crossbar vs Multistage
Crossbar: 15x15 = 225 crosspoints
Multistage:
o Three 1st stage switches = 3 x 5 x 2 = 30
o Two 2nd stage switches = 2 x 3 x 3 = 18
o Three 3rd stage switches = 3 x 5 x 2 = 30
o Total = 78 crosspoints
Space Division Switching
Reduction in the number of crosspoints results
in blocking (when one input cannot be
connected to an output because there is no
available path)
Crossbar does not experience blocking except
when trying to contact same output (busy)
In multistage, increasing the number of stages
will increase also the possible blocking
Time Division Switching
Uses TDM to achieve switching
Two methods:
o Time-slot interchange
o TDM bus
Time Division Switching
Time-Slot Interchange
changes the ordering of the slots based on
the desired connections
Time Division Switching
Time-Slot Interchange
TSI consists of random access memory
(RAM) with several memory locations
Size of each location is the same as the
number of inputs
RAM fills up the incoming data from time
slots in the order received
Slots are then sent out in an order based on
the decisions of a control unit
Time Division Switching
TDM Bus
Input and output lines
are connected to a high
speed bus through input
and output gates
(microswitches)
Control unit opens and
closes the gates
according to the
switching need in a given
time slot
Space and Time Division
Combination
Space Division
Advantage: instantaneous
Disadvantage: no. of crosspoints required
Time Division
Advantage: needs no crosspoints
Disadvantage: with TSI, processing each
connection creates delays
Space and Time Division
Combination
Possible Combinations
Time-Space-Time (TST)
Time-Space-Space-Time (TSST)
Space-Time-Time-Space (STTS)
Ave. delay =
1/3 TSI
Telephone Network
Uses circuit switching
Plain Old Telephone System (POTS) – analog
system
Major Components
Telephone Network
Local Loops – twisted pair cable that connects
subscriber telephone to nearest central office;
1st three digits: central office
Next four digits: local loop number
Trunks – transmission medium that links the
central offices through multiplexing (optical
fibers or satellite)
Switching Office – connects several local loops
or trunks and allows a connection between
different subscribers
Telephone Network
Local Access Transport Areas (LATAs)
it can be a small or large metropolitan area
Intra-LATA Services – services offered by the
common carriers (telephone companies)
Local Exchange Carrier (LEC) – carrier that
handles intra-LATA services
Incumbent Local Exchange Carrier (ILEC) –
owns the cabling system (local loops)
Competitive Local Exchange Carrier (CLEC) –
new carriers that can provide services
Telephone Network
Communication inside LATA is handled by end
switches and tandem switches
Toll-free – call that can be completed by using
only end offices
Charged – call that has to go through a tnade,m
office (Intra-LATA toll office)
Telephone Network
Inter-Exchange Carriers (IXCs) ~ Long Distance
Companies – handles services between LATAs;
long distance carriers that provide general data
communications services
Point of Presence (POPs) – means of carriers
(LECs and IXCs) that lets them communicate
with one another
Each IXC that wants to provide inter-LATA
services must have a POP
Telephone Network
Telephone Network
Accessing the switching station at the end
offices is accomplished through dialing.
Telephone Network
Analog Services
o Analog Switched Service
familiar dial up service like home
telephone
call is conveyed to a switch at the
exchange
Local call services – provided for a flat
rate
Toll Call Services – intra or inter-LATA
800 services – if organization needs to
provide free connections for customers
(free for caller but paid by the callee)
Telephone Network
Analog Services
o Analog Switched Service
WATS (Wide Area Telephone Service) –
opposite of 800 service. Outbound calls are
paid by caller, and charges are based on the
number of calls
900 services – like 800 services where
calls are inbound to a subscriber but the
call is paid by the caller. There is a charge
on long distance toll and there is a fee paid
to the callee for each call. (Call centers)
Telephone Network
Analog Services
o Analog Leased Service
offers customers to lease a line (dedicated
line) that is permanently connected to
another customer (switch is always closed
so no dialing is needed)
Telephone Network
Digital Services
less sensitive than analog services to noise
and interference
o Switched/56
digital version of analog switched line
Allows data rates of up to 56 Kbps
Both parties must subscribe
subscribers don’t need modems to
transmit digital data (line is already digital)
needs Digital Service Unit (DSU) that
changes the rate of the digital data to 56
Kbps and encodes them in the format of the
service provider.
Telephone Network
Digital Services
o Digital Data Service (DDS)
digital version of analog leased line
Allows data rates of up to 64 Kbps
High Speed
Digital Access
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Provides higher speed access to the
Internet
Types of xDSL
ADSL
VDSL
HDSL
SDSL
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
o Provides higher bit rate in the downstream than
the upstream
o It is not suitable for business customers who
needs a large BW in both directions but for
residential users
o Uses existing local loop (1.1 MHz w/o filter)
o Uses an adaptive technology that tests the
condition and BW availability of the line before
settling on a data rate that is based on the local
loop of the line
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
o Discrete Multitone Technique (DMT) –
modulation technique of ADSL that
combines QAM and FDM.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
o Actual bit rate: Upstream – 64 Kbps to 1 Mbps
Downstream – 500 Kbps to 8 Mbps
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Asymmetrical DSL (ADSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Symmetrical DSL (SDSL)
o Designed for businesses that send and
receive data in large volumes in both
directions
o Divides the available BW equally between
the downstream and upstream
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
High-Bit-Rate DSL (HDSL)
o Designed as an alternative to T-1 line (due
to attenuation at high frequencies)
o T-1 line is limited only to 1 Km, hence, for
longer distances, a repeater is needed
o HDSL uses 2B1Q encoding instead of AMI
o Distance increases up to 3.6 Km.
o It uses two twisted pair wires to achieve
full duplex transmission
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Very-High-Bit-Rate DSL (VDSL)
o Similar to ADSL and it uses coaxial, fiber
optic or twisted pair for short distances
(300 to 1800 m)
o Modulating technique is DMT with a bit rate
of 50 to 55 Mbps (downstream) and 1.5 to
2.5 Mbps (upstream)
Cable Modem
Uses Coaxial Cable rather than UTP
It started as CATV (Community Antenna TV)
Communication is
unidirectional
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Uses combination of fiber optic and coaxial
cable
o Regional cable head (RCH) normally serves
up to 400,000 subscribers
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Distribution hubs
can serve up to 40,000 subscribers
It is where modulation and distribution of signals
is done
o Each coax serves up to 1000 subscriber
o The use of fiber optic cables reduces the
number of usage of amplifier
o The system is bi-directional Us
Us es
es 64
QP QA
SK M
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o 6 bits for each baud (1 bit for forward error
correction; 5 bits of data)
o Theoretical downstream data is 30 Mbps
o Theoretical upstream data is 12 Mbps
o Upstream Sharing
BW is only 37 MHz (six 6 MHz channels)
Upstream is shared using timesharing where the
band is divided into channels using FDM
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Downstream Sharing
33 - 6 MHz channels
Multicasting situation (each subscriber is sent the
data)
o Key devices for data transmission
o Cable Modem (CM) – similar to ADSL modems
o Cable Modem Transmission System (CMTS)
receives data from the internet and passes them to
the combiner which delivers them to subscriber
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Data Transmission Schemes: DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
System Interface Specification)
Defines all the protocols necessary to transport data from CMTS to
CM
Upstream Communication Protocol
1. CM checks the downstream channels for a specific packet
periodically sent by CMTS
2. CMTS sends a packet to the CM defining its allocated
downstream and upstream channels
3. CM starts ranging (determines the distance between the CM and
CMTS). This is required for synchronization of minislots for
timesharing.
Cable Modem
Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial Network (HFC)
o Data Transmission Schemes: DOCSIS (Data Over Cable
System Interface Specification)
Upstream Communication Protocol
4. CM sends a packet to the ISP asking for Internet address
5. CM and CMTS exchange some packets to establish security
parameters (for cable TV)
6. CM sends unique identifier to the CMTS
7. Upstream communication can start in the allocated
upstream channel (CM can contend for the minislots to send
data)
Downstream: no contention since only one sender
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
It is ANSI standard
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) – ITU-T standard
Single clock is used to handle the timing of transmissions
and equipment across the entire network that enables
predictability
SONET contains recommendations for the standardization
of Fiber Optic Transmission System (FOTS)
It has mechanisms that allow it to carry signals from
incompatible tributary systems (DS0/DS1)
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
It uses TDM
It is a synchronous system controlled by a
master clock with a very high level of accuracy
SONET devices
o Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)
multiplexers
o Regenerators (Repeaters)
o Add/Drop Multiplexers
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
SONET Frame
o Matrix of nine rows of 90 octets each (810
octets)
o First three columns – used for administration
overhead
o The rest of the frame is called Synchronous
Payload Envelope (SPE) – it contains
transmission overhead and user data
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
SONET Frame
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
SONET Frame
o Payload can start anywhere in the frame and can
even span two frames
o If the SPE arrives a little late, it does not have to wait
for the beginning of the next frame
o Pointer address from columns 1 to 3 can determine
the beginning address
o Frames are transmitted one after another without any
gap in between
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
SONET Frame
o Alignment bytes – first 2 bytes of each frame; it defines the
beginning of each frame
o Third byte is frame idetification
Synchronous Transport Signals
o Optical Carriers (OC) – physical links defined to carry each
level of STS
o OC levels describe the conceptual and physical
specifications of the links required to support each level of
signaling.
SONET
SONET
Virtual Tributaries
o SONET is designed to carry broadband payloads
o Virtual tributaries are used to make SONET
backward compatible with the current hierarchy
(DS-1 to DS-3)
o It is a partial payload that can be inserted into a
frame and combined with other partial payloads
to fill out the frame
SONET
Virtual Tributaries
o VT1.5 accommodates DS-1 service
8000 frames/s x 3 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 1.728 Mbps
o VT2 accommodates European CEPT-1 service
8000 frames/s x 6 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 2.304 Mbps
o VT3 accommodates DS-1C service
8000 frames/s x 9 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 3.456 Mbps
o VT6 accommodates DS-2 service
8000 frames/s x 12 columns x 9 rows x 8 bits = 6.912 Mbps
SONET
Higher Rate Services
