Chapter 09 Phase-Locked Loops

Chapter 9 Phase-Locked Loops
 9.1 Basic Concepts

 9.2 Type-I PLLs
 9.3 Type-II PLLs
 9.4 PFD/CP Nonidealities
 9.5 Phase Noise in PLLs
 9.6 Loop Bandwidth
 9.7 Design Procedure
 9.8 Appendix I: Phase Margin of Type-II
PLLs
1
Behzad Razavi, RF Microelectronics. Prepared by Bo Wen, UCLA
Chapter Outline
Type-I PLLs
Type-II PLLs
PLL Nonidealities
 VCO Phase Alignment
 Phase/Frequency
 Dynamics of Type-I PLLs
Detectors 
 Frequency Multiplication PFD/CP Nonidealities
 Charge Pump 
 Drawbacks of Type-I PLL Circuit Techniques
 Charge-Pump PLLs  VCO Phase Noise
 Transient Response  Reference Phase
Noise
Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 2

Phase Detector
 A PD is a circuit that senses two periodic inputs and produces an output

whose average value is proportional to the difference between the phases of
the inputs
 The input/output characteristic of the PD is ideally a straight line, with a slope
called the “gain” and denoted by KPD

Example of Phase Detector
Must the two periodic inputs to a PD have equal frequencies?
Solution:
They need not, but with unequal frequencies, the phase difference between the inputs varies
with time. Figure above depicts an example, where the input with a higher frequency, x2(t),
accumulates phase faster than x1(t), thereby changing the phase difference, ΔΦ. The PD
output pulsewidth continues to increase until ΔΦ crosses 180 °, after which it decreases
toward zero. That is, the output waveform displays a “beat” behavior having a frequency
equal to the difference between the input frequencies. Also, note that the average phase
difference is zero, and so is the average output.

How is the PD Implemented?
 We seek a circuit whose average output is proportional to the input phase

difference.
 An Exclusive-OR (XOR) gate can serve this purpose. It generates pulses whose
width is equal to Δϕ

Example of XOR PD (Ⅰ)
Plot the input/output characteristic of the XOR PD for two cases: (a) the circuit
has a single-ended output that swings between 0 and VDD, (b) the circuit has a
differential output that swings between -V0 and +V0.
Solution:
(a) Assigning a swing of VDD to the output pulses shown in previous figure, we observe that
the output average begins from zero for ΔΦ= 0 and rises toward VDD as ΔΦ approaches
180° (because the overlap between the input pulses approaches zero). As ΔΦ exceeds
180°, the output average falls, reaching zero at ΔΦ = 360°. Figure above depicts the
behavior, revealing a periodic, nonmonotonic characteristic.

Example of XOR PD (Ⅱ)
Plot the input/output characteristic of the XOR PD for two cases: (a) the circuit
has a single-ended output that swings between 0 and VDD, (b) the circuit has a
differential output that swings between -V0 and +V0.
Solution:
(b) Plotted in figure above for a small phase difference, the output exhibits narrow pulses
above -V0 and hence an average nearly equal to -V0. As ΔΦ increases, the output spends
more time at +V0, displaying an average of zero for ΔΦ = 90°. The average continues to
increase as ΔΦ increases and reaches a maximum of +V0 at ΔΦ = 180°. As shown top right,
the average falls thereafter, crossing zero at ΔΦ = 270° and reaching -V0 at 360°.

Example of a MOS Switch as a PD
A single MOS switch can operate as a “poor man’s phase detector”. Explain how.
Solution:
A MOS switch can serve as a return-to-zero or a sampling mixer. For two signals x1(t) =
A1cos ω1t and x2(t) = A2 cos(ω2t + Φ), the mixer generates
if ω1 = ω2, then the average output is given by
This characteristic resembles a “smoothed” version of that of the previous example. The
gain of this PD varies with ΔΦ, reaching a maximum of ± αA1A2/2 at odd multiples of π/2.
Type-I PLLs: Alignment of a VCO’s Phase
To null the finite phase error, we must:

 (1)change the frequency of the VCO
 (2)allow the VCO to accumulate phase faster(or more slowly) than the
reference so that the phase error vanishes
 (3)change the frequency back to its initial value

Simple PLL and Loop Filter
 Negative feedback loop: if the “loop gain” is sufficiently high, the circuit
minimizes the input error.
 The PD produces repetitive pulses at its output, modulating the VCO frequency
and generating large sidebands.
 Interpose a low-pass filter between the PD and the VCO to suppress these
pulses.
A student reasons that the negative feedback loop must force the phase error to
zero, in which case the PD generates no pulses and the VCO is not disturbed.
Thus, a low-pass filter is not necessary.
As explained later, this feedback system suffers from a finite loop gain, exhibiting a finite
phase error in the steady state. Even PLLs having an infinite loop gain contain nonidealities
that disturb Vcont

Simple PLL: Phase Locking
 We say the loop is “locked” if ϕout(t)-ϕin(t) is constant with time.

 An important and unique consequence of phase locking is that the input and
output frequencies of the PLL are exactly equal.

Example of Replacing the PD with a Frequency
Detector
A student argues that the input and output frequencies are exactly equal even if
the phase detector in the previous simple PLL with low-pass filter is replaced with
a “frequency detector” (FD), i.e., a circuit that generates a dc value in proportion
to the input frequency difference. Explain the flaw in this argument.
Solution:
As figure above depicts the student’s idea. We may call this a “frequency-locked loop” (FLL).
The negative feedback loop attempts to minimize the error between fin and fout. But, does
this error fall to zero? This circuit is analogous to the unity-gain buffer, whose input and
output may not be exactly equal due to the finite gain and offset of the op amp. The FLL may
also suffer from a finite error if its loop gain is finite or if the frequency detector exhibits
offsets.

Analysis of Simple PLLs
 If the loop is locked, the input and output frequencies are equal, the PD
generates repetitive pulses, the loop filter extracts the average level , and the
VCO senses this level so as to operate at required frequency
Example of Phase Error
If the input frequency changes by Δω, how much is the change in the phase error?
Assume the loop remains locked.
Solution:
Depicted in figure above, such a change requires that Vcont change by Δω/KVCO. This in turn
necessitates a phase error change of
The key observation here is that the phase error varies with the frequency. To minimize this
variation, KPDKVCO must be maximized. This quantity is sometimes called the “loop gain”
even though it is not dimensionless.
Response of PLL to Input Frequency Step
 The loop locks only after two conditions are satisfied:

(1)ωout becomes equal to ωin
(2)the difference between ϕin and ϕout settles to its proper value
Example of FSK Input Applied to PLL
An FSK waveform is applied to a PLL. Sketch the control voltage as a function of

time.
Solution:
The input frequency toggles between two values and so does the output frequency. The
control voltage must also toggle between two values. The control voltage waveform
therefore appears as shown in figure above, providing the original bit stream. That is, a PLL
can serve as an FSK (and, more generally, FM) demodulator if Vcont is considered the output.

PLL No Better than a Wire?
Having carefully followed our studies thus far, a student reasons that, except for
the FSK demodulator application, a PLL is no better than a wire since it attempts
to make the input and output frequencies and phases equal! What is the flaw in
the student’s argument?
We will better appreciate the role of phase locking later in this chapter. Nonetheless, we can
observe that the dynamics of the loop can yield interesting and useful properties. Suppose
in the previous example, the input frequency toggles at a relatively high rate, leaving little
time for the PLL to “keep up.” As illustrated in figure below, at each input frequency jump,
the control voltage begins to change in the opposite direction but does not have enough
time to settle. In other words, the output frequency excursions are smaller than the input
frequency jumps. The loop thus performs low-pass filtering on the input frequency
variations—just as the unity-gain buffer performs low-pass filtering on the input voltage
variations if the op amp has a limited bandwidth. In fact, many applications incorporate
PLLs to reduce the frequency or phase noise of a signal by means of this low-pass filtering
property.

Loop Dynamics: the Meaning of Transfer Function in
Phase Domain
 The transfer function of a voltage-domain circuit signifies how a sinusoidal

input voltage propagates to the output.
 The transfer function of a PLL must reveal how a slow or a fast change in the
input (excess) phase propagates to the output.

Loop Dynamics: Phase Domain Model
The open-loop transfer function
Overall closed-loop transfer function
The analysis illustrated in PLL implementation suggests that the loop locks with a
finite phase error whereas above equation implies that Φout = Φin for very slow
phase variations. Are these two observations consistent?
Yes, they are. As with any transfer function, above equation deals with changes in the input
and the output rather than with their total values. In other words, it merely indicates that a
phase step of ΔΦ at the input eventually appears as a phase change of ΔΦ at the output, but
it does not provide the static phase offset.
Damping Factor and Natural Frequency
 The damping factor is typically

chosen to be or larger so as
to provide a well-behaved (critical
damped or overdamped) response.
 ωLPF=1/(R1C1)
Using Bode plots of the open-loop

system, explain why ζ is inversely
proportional to KVCO.
This figure shows the behavior of the

open-loop transfer function, Hopen, for
two different values of KVCO. As KVCO
increases, the unity-gain frequency
rises, thus reducing the phase margin
(PM).

Two Additions for Loop Dynamics
 Since phase and frequency are related by a linear, time-invariant operation, the
equation below also applies to frequency quantities.
How do we ensure the feedback of previous simple PLL implementation is

negative?
Solution:
The phase detector provides both negative and positive gains. Thus, the loop automatically
locks with negative feedback.

Frequency Multiplication
 The output frequency of a PLL can be divided and then fed back.
 The ÷M circuit is a counter that generates one output pulse for every M input
pulses.
 The divide ratio, M, is called the “modulus”.

Example of Divider Response to FM Sidebands
The control voltage in figure above experiences a small sinusoidal ripple of

amplitude Vm at a frequency equal to ωin. Plot the output spectra of the VCO and
the divider.
From the narrowband FM approximation, we know that the VCO output contains two
sidebands at Mωin ± ωin. How does the divider respond to such a spectrum? Since a
frequency divider simply divides the input frequency or phase, we can write VF as
That is, the sidebands maintain their spacing with respect to the carrier after frequency
division, but their relative magnitude falls by a factor of M.

Feedback Divider and Loop Dynamics
 In analogy with the op amp, we surmise that the weaker feedback leads to a
slower response and a larger phase error.
Repeat analysis for PLL in the frequency multiplication depicted above and
calculate the static phase error.
Solution:
If ωin changes by Δω, ωout must change by MΔω. Such a change translates to a control
voltage change equal to MΔω/KVCO and hence a phase error change of MΔω/(KVCOKPD) As
expected, the error is larger by a factor of M.

Drawbacks of Simple PLL
 First, a tight relation between the loop stability and the corner frequency of the
low-pass filter. Ripple on the control line modulates the VCO frequency and
must be suppressed by choosing a low value for ωLPF, leading to a less stable
loop
 Second, the simple PLL suffers from a limited “acquisition range”. If the VCO
frequency and the input frequency are very different at the start-up, the loop
may never “acquire” lock.
 In addition, the finite static phase error and its variation with the input
frequency also prove undesirable in some applications.

Type-II PLLs: Phase/Frequency Detectors
 A rising edge on A yields a rising edge on QA (if QA is low)

 A rising edge on B resets QA (if QA is high)
 The circuit is symmetric with respect to A and B (and QA and QB)
Operation of PFD: State Diagram
 At least three logical states are necessary: QA=QB=0; QA=0, QB=1; and QA=1,
QB=0
 To avoid dependence of the output upon the duty cycle of the inputs, the
circuit should be realized as an edge-triggered sequential machine

PFD: Logical Implementation
 QA and QB are simultaneously high for a duration given by the total delay
through the AND gate and the reset path of the flipflops.
 The width of the narrow reset pulses on QA and QB is equal to three gate delays
plus the delay of the AND gate

Use of a PFD in PLL
 Use of a PFD in a phase-locked loop resolves the issue of the limited

acquisition range.
 At the beginning of a transient, the PFD acts as a frequency detector, pushing
the VCO frequency toward the input frequency. After the two are sufficiently
close, the PFD operates as a phase detector, bringing the loop into phase lock.

Charge Pumps: an Overview
 Switches S1 and S2 are controlled by

the inputs “UP” and “Down”,
respectively.
 A pulse of width ΔT on Up turns S1
on for ΔT seconds, allowing I1 to
charge C1. Vout goes up by ΔT · I1/C1
 Similarly, a pulse on Down yields a
drop in Vout.
 If Up and Down are asserted
simultaneously, I1 simply flows
through S1 and S2 to I2, creating no
change in Vout.

Operation of PFD/CP Cascade
 Infinite Gain: An arbitrarily small (constant) phase difference between A and B

still turns one switch on, thereby charging or discharging C1 and driving Vout
toward +∞ or -∞
We can approximate the PFD/CP circuit of figure above as a current source of
some average value driving C1. Calculate the average value of the current source
and the output slope for an input period of Tin.
For an input phase difference of ΔΦ rad = [ΔΦ /(2π)] × Tin seconds, the average current is
equal to Ip ΔΦ /(2π) and the average slope, Ip ΔΦ /(2π) /C1.

Charge Pump PLLs: First Attempt
 Such a loop ideally forces the input phase error to zero because a finite error
would lead to an unbounded value fro Vcont.
 We will first derive the transfer function of the PFD/CP/C1 cascade.
 Called Type-II PLL because its open-loop transfer function contains two poles
at the origin

Computation of Transfer Function: Continuous-Time
Approximation
We can approximate this waveform by a ramp --- as if the charge pump continuously
injected current into C1
Taking the Laplace transform

Example: Derivatives of Vcont and its Approximation
Plot the derivatives of Vcont and its ramp approximation in figure above and
explain under what condition the derivatives resemble each other.
Solution:
Shown above are the derivatives. The approximation of repetitive pulses by a single step
appears less convincing than the approximation of the charge-and-hold waveform by a ramp.
Indeed, if a function f(x) can approximate another function g(x), the derivative of f(x) does
not necessarily provide a good approximation of the derivative of g(x). Nonetheless, if the
time scale of interest is much longer than the input period, we can view the step as an
average of the repetitive pulses. Thus, the height of the step is equal to (Ip/C1)(ΔΦ0/2π).

Charge-Pump PLL
 If one of the integrators becomes lossy, the system can be stabilized.

 This can be accomplished by inserting a resistor in series with C1. The
resulting circuit is called a “charge pump PLL” (CPPLL)

Computation of the Transfer Function
Approximate the pulse sequence by a step of height (IpR1)[ΔΦ0/(2π)]:

Stability of Charge-Pump PLL
Write the denominator as s2 + 2ζωns + ωn2
 As C1 increases, so does ζ --- a trend

opposite of that observed in type-I
PLL: trade-off between stability and
ripple amplitude thus removed.
Closed-loop poles are given by
a closed-loop zero at –ωn / 2ζ

Transient Response: An Example to Start
Plot the magnitude of the closed-loop transfer function as a function of ω if ζ = 1
Solution:
The closed loop contains two real coincident poles at -ωn and a zero at -ωn/2. Depicted
below |H| begins to rise from unity at ω = ωn/2, reaches a peak at ω = ωn, returns to unity at
ω = ωn, and continues to fall at a slope of -20 dB/dec thereafter.

Transient Response: Derivation
From inverse Laplace transform, the output frequency, Δωout, as a function of time for a
frequency step at the input, Δωin

Time Constant
Assume:
The time constant of the loop is expressed as
The zero is also located at –ωn / (2ζ)
Approaches a one-pole system having a time constant of 1/ (2ζωn)

Example about Time Constant
A student has encountered an inconsistency in our derivations. We concluded

above that the loop time constant is approximately equal to 1/ (2ζωn) for ζ2 >> 1,
but previous equations evidently imply a time constant of 1/ (ζωn) . Explain the
cause of this inconsistency.
Solution:
For ζ2 >> 1, we have ≈ 1. Since cosh x - sinh x = e-x, we have
Thus, the time constant of the loop is indeed equal to 1/ (2ζωn). More generally, we say that
with typical values of ζ, the loop time constant lies between 1/ (ζωn) and 1/ (2ζωn).

Limitations of Continuous-Time Approximation
 We have made two continuous-time approximations: the charge-and-hold

waveform is represented by a ramp, and the series of pulse is modeled by a
step.
 Illustrated by the graph above, the approximation holds well if the CT
waveform changes little from one clock cycle to the next, but loses its
accuracy if the CT waveform experiences fast changes.
 CPPLL obey the transfer function derived before only if their internal states do
not change rapidly from one input cycle to the next.

Frequency-Multiplying CPPLL
As can be seen in the bode plot, the division of KVCO by M makes the loop less stable,
requiring that Ip and/or C1 be larger. We can rewrite equation above as

Example of Multiplying PLL with FM Input
The input to a multiplying PLL is a sinusoid with two small “close-in” FM

sidebands, i.e., the modulation frequency is relatively low. Determine the output
spectrum of the PLL.
The input can be expressed as:
Since the sidebands are small, the narrowband FM approximation applies and the
magnitude of the input sidebands normalized to the carrier amplitude is equal to a/(2ωm).
Since sinωmt modulates the phase of the input slowly, we let s → 0:

Higher-Order Loops: Drawback of Previous Loop
Filter
 The loop filter consisting of R1 and C1 proves inadequate because, even in the
locked condition, it does not suppress the ripple sufficiently.
 The ripple consists of positive ad negative pulses of amplitude IpR1 occurring
every Tin seconds.

Addition of Second Capacitor to Loop Filter
 A common approach to lowering the ripple is to tie a capacitor directly from

the control line to ground.
We therefore choose ζ = 0.8 -1 and C2 ≈ 0.2C1 in typical designs.

An upper bound derived for R1 in Appendix I is as:

Example of Topology to Reject Supply Noise
Consider the two filter/VCO topologies shown in figure below and explain which
one is preferable with respect to supply noise.
Solution:
In figure top left, the loop filter is “referenced” to ground whereas the voltage across the
varactors is referenced to VDD. Since C1 and C2 are much greater than the capacitance of the
varactors, Vcont remains relatively constant and noise on VDD modulates the value of the
varactors. On top right, on the other hand, the loop filter and the varactors are referenced to
the same “plane,” namely, VDD. Thus, noise on VDD negligibly modulates the voltage across
the varactors. In essence, the loop filter “bootstraps” Vcont to VDD, allowing the former to
track the latter. This topology is therefore preferable. This principle should be observed for
the interface between the loop filter and the VCO in any PLL design.

Alternative Second-Order Loop Filter
 The ripple at node X may be large but it is suppressed as it travels through the
low-pass filter consisting of R2 and C2
 (R2C2)-1 must remain 5 to 10 times higher than ωz so as to yield a reasonable
phase margin.

PFD/CP Nonidealities: Up and Down Skew and Width
Mismatch
 The width of the pulse is equal to the width of the reset pulses, Tres (about 5
gate delays), plus ΔT.
 The height of the pulse is equal to ΔT Ip/C2

Example of Up and Down Skew and Width Mismatch
Approximating the pulses on the control line by impulses, determine the

magnitude of the resulting sidebands at the output of the VCO.
The area under each pulse is approximately given by (ΔTIp/C2)Tres if Tres >> 2ΔT. The Fourier
transform of the sequence therefore contains impulses at the multiples of the input
frequency, fin = 1/Tin, with an amplitude of (ΔTIp/C2)Tres /Tin . The two impulses at ± 1/Tin
correspond to a sinusoid having a peak amplitude of 2ΔTIpC2Tres /Tin If the narrowband FM
approximation holds, we conclude that the relative magnitude of the sidebands at fc ± fin at
the VCO output is given by
Sidebands at fc ± n fin are scaled down by a factor of n.

Systematic Skew
 The delay of the inverter creates a skew between the Up and Down pulses.
 To alleviate this issue, a transmission gate can be inserted in the Down pulse
path so as to replicate the delay of the inverter
 The quantity of interest is in fact the skew between the Up and Down current
waveforms, or ultimately, the net current injected into the loop filter

Example of Widths Mismatch
What is the effect of mismatch between the widths of the Up and Down pulses?
Illustrated above left for the case of Down narrower than Up, this condition may suggest that
a pulse of current is injected into the loop filter at each phase comparison instant. However,
such periodic injection would continue to increase (or decrease) Vcont with no bound. The
PLL thus creates a phase offset as shown in figure top right such that the Down pulse
becomes as wide as the Up pulse. Consequently, the net current injected into the filter
consists of two pulses of equal and opposite areas. For an original width mismatch of
ΔT, previous equation applies here as well.
Voltage Compliance
 It is desirable to design the charge pump so that it produces minimum and

maximum voltages as close to the supply rails as possible.
 Each current source requires a minimum drain-source voltage and each switch
sustains a voltage drop.
 The output compliance is equal to VDD minus two overdrive voltages and two
switch drops

Charge Injection and Clock Feedthrough
 As switches turn on, they absorb this

charge and as they turn off, they dispel
this charge, through source and drain
terminals.
the Up and Down pulses couple through CGD1 and

CGD2. Initially
charge sharing between C2 and C1 reduces this voltage to:

How to Reduce the Effect of Charge Injection and
Clock Feedthrough?
 Here three ways to reduce the effect of charge injection and clock feedthrough
is presented below
source-switched CP use of dummy switches use of differential pairs

Random Mismatch Between Up and Down Currents
the net current is zero if:
the ripple amplitude is equal to:

Channel Length Modulation
 Different output voltages inevitably lead to opposite changes in the drain-

source voltages of the current sources, thereby creating a larger mismatch.
 The maximum departure of IX from zero, Imax, divided by the nominal value of Ip
quantifies the effect of channel-length modulation.

Example of Channel-Length Modulation
The phase offset of a CPPLL varies with the output frequency. Explain why.
Solution:
At each output frequency and hence at each control voltage, channel-length modulation
introduces a certain mismatch between the Up and Down currents. As implied by previous
equation, this mismatch is normalized to Ip and multiplied by Tres to yield the phase offset.
The general behavior is sketched in figure below.

Circuit Techniques to Deal with Channel Length
Modulation: Regulated Cascodes
 The output impedance is raised

 Drawback stems from the finite response of the auxiliary amplifiers

Circuit Techniques to Deal with Channel Length
Modulation: Use of a Servo Loop
 A0 need not provide a fast response

 Performance limited by random mismatches between NMOS current sources
and between PMOS current sources. Also the op amp must operate with a
nearly rail-to-rail input common-mode range.

Gate Switching
 Voltage headroom saved

 But exacerbates the problem of Up and Down arrival mismatch. Op amp A0
must operate with a wide input voltage range.

Another Example that Cancels Both Random and
Deterministic Mismatches
 The accuracy of the circuit is ultimately limited by the charge injection and
clock feedthrough mismatch between M1 and M5 and between M2 and M6

Example of Reference Frequency and Divide Ratio
on Sidebands (Ⅰ)
A PLL having a reference frequency of fREF and a divide ratio of N exhibits
reference sidebands at the output that are 60 dB below the carrier. If the reference
frequency is doubled and the divide ratio is halved (so that the output frequency
is unchanged), what happens to the reference sidebands? Assume the CP
nonidealities are constant and the time during which the CP is on remains much
shorter than TREF = 1/fREF .
Solution:
Figure on the right plots the time-domain and
frequency-domain behavior of the control voltage
in the first case. Since ΔT << TREF , we approximate
each occurrence of the ripple by an impulse of
height V0 ΔT. The spectrum of the ripple thus
comprises impulses of height V0 ΔT /TREF at
harmonics of fREF . The two impulses at ± fREF can
be viewed in the time domain as a sinusoid having
a peak amplitude of 2V0 ΔT /TREF , producing output
sidebands that are below the carrier by a factor of
(1/2)(2V0 ΔT /TREF )KVCO/(2πfREF) = (V0 ΔTKVCO)/(2π).

Example of Reference Frequency and Divide Ratio
on Sidebands (Ⅱ)
Now, consider the second case, shown in

figure on the right. The ripple repetition rate
is doubled, and so is the height of the
impulses in the frequency domain. The
magnitude of the output sidebands with
respect to the carrier is therefore equal to
(1/2)(4V0 ΔT /TREF )KVCO/(4πfREF) = (V0
ΔTKVCO)/(2π). In other words, the sidebands
move away from the carrier but their relative
magnitude does not change.

Phase Noise in PLLs: VCO Phase Noise
 PLL suppresses slow variations in the phase of the VCO but cannot provide
much correction for fast variations

Example of VCO Phase Noise
What happens to the frequency response shown above if ωn is increased by a

factor of K while ζ remains constant?
Solution:
We observe that both poles scale up by a factor of K. Since Φout/ΦVCO ≈ s2/ωn2 for s ≈ 0, the
plot is shifted down by a factor of K2 at low values of ω. Depicted below, the response now
suppresses the VCO phase noise to a greater extent.

Another Example of VCO Phase Noise(Ⅰ)
Consider a PLL with a feedback divide ratio of N. Compare the phase noise
behavior of this case with that of a dividerless loop. Assume the output frequency
is unchanged.
Redrawing the loop above as shown below on the left, we recognize that the feedback is
now weaker by a factor of N. The transfer function still applies, but both ζ and ωn are
reduced by a factor of .
What happens to the magnitude plot? We make two observations. (1) To maintain the same
transient behavior, ζ must be constant; e.g., the charge pump current must be scaled up by
a factor of N. Thus, the poles given by previous equation simply decrease by factor of .
(2)For s → 0, Φout/ΦVCO ≈ s2/ωn2, which is a factor of N higher than that of the dividerless
loop. The magnitude of the transfer function thus appears as depicted below on the right.

Another Example of VCO Phase Noise(Ⅱ)
A time-domain perspective can also explain the rise in the output phase noise. Assuming
that the output frequency remains unchanged in the two cases, we note that the dividerless
loop makes phase comparisons— and hence phase corrections—N times more often than
the loop with a divider does. That is, in the presence of a divider, the VCO can accumulate
phase noise for N cycles without receiving any correction. Figure below illustrates the two
scenarios.

VCO Phase Noise: White Noise and Flicker Noise
low offset frequencies high offset frequencies

Shaped VCO Noise Summary
 The overall PLL output phase noise is equal to the sum of SA and SB
 The actual shape depends on two factors:
(1) the intersection frequency of α/ω3 and β/ω2
(2) the value of ωn

Example of High and Low Thermal-Noise-Induced
Phase Noise
Sketch the overall output phase noise if (a) the intersection of α/ω3 and β/ω2 lies
at a low frequency and ωn is quite larger than that, (b) the intersection of α/ω3 and
β/ω2 lies at a high frequency and ωn is quite smaller than that. (These two cases
represent high and low thermal-noise-induced phase noise, respectively.)
Depicted in figure below (left), the first case contains little 1/f noise contribution, exhibiting
a shaped phase noise, Sout, that merely follows β/ω2 at large offsets. The second case,
shown in figure below (right), is dominated by the shaped 1/f noise regime and provides a
shaped spectrum nearly equal to the free-running VCO phase noise beyond roughly ω = ωn.
We observe that the PLL phase noise experiences more peaking in the latter case.

Reference Phase Noise: the Overall Behavior
 Crystal oscillators providing the reference typically display a flat phase noise
profile beyond an offset of a few kilohertz

Reference Phase Noise: Two Observations
 PLLs performing frequency multiplication “amplify” the low-frequency

reference phase noise proportionally.
 The total phase noise at the output increases with the loop bandwidth

Loop Bandwidth

Design Procedure
The design of PLLs begins with the building blocks: the VCO is designed according to the
criteria and the procedure described in Chapter 8; the feedback divider is designed to
provide the required divide ratio and operate at the maximum VCO frequency (Chapter 10);
the PFD is designed with careful attention to the matching of the Up and Down pulses; and
the charge pump is designed for a wide output voltage range, minimal channel-length
modulation, etc. In the next step, a loop filter must be chosen and the building blocks must
be assembled so as to form the PLL.
We begin with two governing equations:
and choose:
Since KVCO is known from the design of the VCO, we now have two equations and three
unknowns.

Example of Design Procedure of PLL
A PLL must generate an output frequency of 2.4 GHz from a 1-MHz reference. If
KVCO = 300 MHz/V, determine the other loop parameters.
Solution:
We select ζ = 1, 2.5ωn = ωin/10, i.e., ωn = 2π(40 kHz), and Ip = 500 μA. Substituting KVCO =
2π ×(300MHz/V) yields C1 = 0:99 nF. This large value necessitates an off-chip capacitor.
Next, previous equation gives R1 = 8:04 kΩ. Also, C2 = 0.2 nF. As explained in Appendix I, the
choice of ζ = 1 and C2 = 0.2C1 automatically guarantees the condition.
Since C1 is quite large, we can revise our choice of Ip. For example, if Ip = 100 μA, then C1 =
0.2 nF (still quite large). But, for ζ = 1, R1 must be raised by a factor of 5, i.e., R1 = 40.2 kΩ.
Also, C2 = 40 pF.

Appendix I: Phase Margin of Type-II PLLs--- Second
Order
Let us first calculate the value of ωu
We have
The phase margin is therefore given by:

Example of Phase Margin of Type-II PLLs--- Second
Order
Sketch the open-loop characteristics of the PLL with R1 or C1 as a variable
The two trends depicted in figure above shed light on the stronger dependence of ζ on R1
than on C1: in the former, the PM increases because ωz falls and ωu rises whereas in the
latter, the PM increases only because ωz falls.

Appendix I: Phase Margin of Type-II PLLs--- Third
Order
where
and hence

An Important Limitation in Choice of Loop
Parameters
 With C2 present, R1 cannot be arbitrarily large
hence

References (Ⅰ)

References (Ⅱ)

Chapter 09 Phase-Locked Loops

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Chapter 9 Phase-Locked Loops

 9.1 Basic Concepts

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 2

 A PD is a circuit that senses two periodic inputs and produces an output

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 3

Must the two periodic inputs to a PD have equal frequencies?

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 4

 We seek a circuit whose average output is proportional to the input phase

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 5

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 6

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 7

if ω1 = ω2, then the average output is given by

To null the finite phase error, we must:

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 9

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 10

 We say the loop is “locked” if ϕout(t)-ϕin(t) is constant with time.

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 11

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 12

 The loop locks only after two conditions are satisfied:

An FSK waveform is applied to a PLL. Sketch the control voltage as a function of

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 16

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 17

 The transfer function of a voltage-domain circuit signifies how a sinusoidal

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 18

The open-loop transfer function

Overall closed-loop transfer function

 The damping factor is typically

Using Bode plots of the open-loop

This figure shows the behavior of the

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 20

How do we ensure the feedback of previous simple PLL implementation is

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 21

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 22

The control voltage in figure above experiences a small sinusoidal ripple of

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 23

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 24

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 25

 A rising edge on A yields a rising edge on QA (if QA is low)

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 27

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 28

 Use of a PFD in a phase-locked loop resolves the issue of the limited

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 29

 Switches S1 and S2 are controlled by

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 30

 Infinite Gain: An arbitrarily small (constant) phase difference between A and B

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 31

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 32

Taking the Laplace transform

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 33

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 34

 If one of the integrators becomes lossy, the system can be stabilized.

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 35

Approximate the pulse sequence by a step of height (IpR1)[ΔΦ0/(2π)]:

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 36

 As C1 increases, so does ζ --- a trend

Closed-loop poles are given by

a closed-loop zero at –ωn / 2ζ

Chapter9 Phase-Locked Loops 37

Plot the magnitude of the closed-loop transfer function as a function of ω if ζ = 1