OSI Model

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OSI Layers

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OSI Layers

•Provides connectivity and path selection between two host

•Provides Logical address
•No error correction, best effort delivery.

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OSI Layers

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OSI Layers

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OSI Layers

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OSI Layers

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OSI Layers

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Peer-to-Peer Communication

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Encapsulation

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Names for Data at Each Layer

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TCP/IP Model

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

• TCP/IP application layer protocols provide

services to the application software running on a
computer. The application layer does not define
the application itself, but rather it defines services
that applications need—such as the capability to
transfer a file in the case of HTTP.
• In short, the application layer provides an interface
between software running on a computer and the
network itself.

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

So what really happened? Bob’s initial

request actually asks Larry to send his home
page back to Bob. Larry’s web server
software has been configured to know that
the default web page is contained in a file
called home.htm. Bob receives the file from
Larry and displays the contents of the file in
the web browser window.

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

Taking a closer look, this example uses two

TCP/IP application layer protocols. First, the
request for the file and the actual transfer of
the file are performed according to the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

The other protocol used is the Hypertext Markup

Language (HTML). HTML is one of many
specifications that define how Bob’s web browser
should interpret the text inside the file he just
received. For instance, the file might contain
directions about making certain text be a certain size,
color, and so on. In most cases, the file also includes
directions about other files that Bob’s web browser
should get—files that contain such things as pictures
and animation. HTTP would then be used to get
those additional files from Larry, the web server.

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

• To get the web page from Larry, Bob

sends something called an HTTP header
to Larry. This header includes the
command to “get” a file. The request
typically contains the name of the file
(home.htm in this case), or, if no filename
is mentioned, the web server assumes that
Bob wants the default web page.

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

This simple example between Bob and Larry

introduces one of the most important general
concepts behind networking models: when a
particular layer on one computer wants to
communicate with the same layer on another
computer, the two computers use headers to hold the
information that they want to communicate. The
headers are part of what is transmitted between the
two computers. This process is called same-layer
interaction.

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The TCP/IP Application Layer

The application layer protocol (HTTP, in this

case) on Bob is communicating with Larry’s
application layer. They each do so by creating
and sending application layer headers to each
other.

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The TCP/IP Transport Layer

The TCP/IP application layer includes a

relatively large number of protocols, with
HTTP being only one of those. The TCP/IP
transport layer consists of two main protocol
options:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

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The TCP/IP Transport Layer

To appreciate what the transport layer protocols do, you

must think about the layer above the transport layer, the
application layer. Why? Well, each layer provides a service
to the layer above it. For example, in Figure 2-2, Bob and
Larry used HTTP to transfer the home page from Larry to
Bob. But what would have happened if Bob’s HTTP get
request had been lost in transit through the TCP/IP
network? Or, what would have happened if Larry’s
response, which included the contents of the home page,
had been lost? Well, as you might expect, in either case
the page would not have shown up in Bob’s browser.

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The TCP/IP Transport Layer

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The TCP/IP Transport Layer

As Figure 2-3 shows, the HTTP software asks for TCP

to reliably deliver the HTTP get request. TCP sends
the HTTP data from Bob to Larry, and the data arrives
successfully. Larry’s TCP software acknowledges
receipt of the data and also gives the HTTP get
request to the web server software. The reverse
happens with Larry’s response, which also arrives at
Bob successfully.

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The TCP/IP Transport Layer

• Concept
Same-layer interaction on different computers
• Description
The two computers use a protocol to communicate with the
same layer on another computer. The protocol defined by each
layer uses a header that is transmitted between the computers,
to communicate what each computer wants to do.

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The TCP/IP Transport Layer

• Concept
Adjacent-layer interaction on the same computer
• Description
On a single computer, one layer provides a service to a higher
layer. The software or hardware that implements the higher
layer requests that the next lower layer perform the needed
function.

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The TCP/IP Internet Layer

Imagine that you just wrote a letter to your favorite

person on the other side of the country and that you
also wrote a letter to someone on the other side of
town. It is time to send the letters. Is there much
difference in how you treat each letter? Not really.
You put a different address on the envelope for each
letter because the letters need to go to two different
places. You put stamps on both letters and put them
in the same mailbox. The postal service takes care of
all the details of figuring out how to get each letter to
the right place, whether it is across town or across
the country.
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The TCP/IP Internet Layer

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The TCP/IP Internet Layer

Bob sends the packet to R2. R2 then examines the destination

IP address (1.1.1.1) and makes a routing decision to send the
packet to R1, because R2 knows enough about the network
topology to know that 1.1.1.1 (Larry) is on the other side of R1.
Similarly, when R1 gets the packet, it forwards the packet over
the Ethernet to Larry. And if the link between R2 and R1 fails, IP
allows R2 to learn of the alternate route through R3 to reach
1.1.1.1.

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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

The network access layer defines the protocols and

hardware required to deliver data across some
physical network. The term network access refers to
the fact that this layer defines how to physically
connect a host computer to the physical media over
which data can be transmitted. For instance, Ethernet
is one example protocol at the TCP/IP network
access layer. Ethernet defines the required cabling,
addressing, and protocols used to create an Ethernet
LAN. Likewise, the connectors, cables, voltage
levels, and protocols used to deliver data across
WAN links are defined in a variety of other protocols
that also fall into the network access layer.
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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

The network access layer includes a large number of protocols.

For instance, the network access layer includes all the
variations of Ethernet protocols and other LAN standards.
This layer also includes the popular WAN standards, such as
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and Frame Relay. The same
familiar network is shown in Figure 2-5, with Ethernet and PPP
used as the two network access layer protocols.

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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

• Because the goal of the IP routing process is to

deliver the IP packet—the IP header and data—to
the destination host, R2 no longer needs the
Ethernet header and trailer received from Bob. So,
R2 strips the Ethernet header and trailer, leaving
the original IP packet. To send the IP packet from
R2 to R1, R2 places a PPP header in front of the IP
packet and a PPP trailer at the end, and sends
this data frame over the WAN link to R1.

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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

• Similarly, after the packet is received by R1,

R1 removes the PPP header and trailer
because PPP’s job is to deliver the IP packet
across the serial link. R1 then decides that it
should forward the packet over the Ethernet
to Larry. To do so, R1 adds a brand-new
Ethernet header and trailer to the packet and
forwards it to Larry.

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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

• In effect, IP uses the network access layer

protocols to deliver an IP packet to the next
router or host, with each router repeating the
process until the packet arrives at the
destination. Each network access protocol uses
headers to encode the information needed to
successfully deliver the data across the physical
network, in much the same way as other layers
use headers to achieve their goals.

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The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

• In effect, IP uses the network access layer

protocols to deliver an IP packet to the next
router or host, with each router repeating the
process until the packet arrives at the
destination. Each network access protocol uses
headers to encode the information needed to
successfully deliver the data across the physical
network, in much the same way as other layers
use headers to achieve their goals.

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Data Encapsulation Terminology

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