Synchronous Generator

• Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current

(AC) generators. They supply the electric power used by all sectors of
modern societies: industrial, commercial, agricultural, and domestic.
• Synchronous generators usually operate together (or in parallel),
forming a large power system supplying electrical energy to the loads or
consumers.
• Synchronous generators are built in large units, their rating ranging
from tens to hundreds of megawatts.

General • Synchronous generator converts mechanical power to ac electric

power. The source of mechanical power, the prime mover, may be a
diesel engine, a steam turbine, a water turbine, or any similar device.
• For high-speed machines, the prime movers are usually steam turbines
employing fossil or nuclear energy resources.
• Low-speed machines are often driven by hydro-turbines that employ
water power for generation.
• Smaller synchronous machines are sometimes used for private
generation and as standby units, with diesel engines or gas turbines as
prime movers.
 Types of Synchronous Machines

1. Rotating-Armature Type
The armature winding is on the rotor and the field system
According to the arrangement is on the stator.
of the field and armature 2. Rotating-Field Type
windings
The armature winding is on the stator and the field system
is on the rotor.

1. Cylindrical-rotor (non-salient pole) machines

• The stator is a ring shaped laminated iron-core with
slots.
• Three phase windings are placed in the slots.
• Round solid iron rotor with slots.
• A single winding is placed in the slots. DC current is
supplied through slip rings.
2. Salient Pole rotor machine
According to the shape of the
field • The stator has a laminated iron-core with slots and
three phase windings placed in the slots.
• The rotor has salient poles excited by DC current.
• DC current is supplied to the rotor through slip-rings
and brushes.
• The number of poles varies between 2 – 128.
 Design Construction

• The winding consists of copper bars insulted with

mica and epoxy resin.
• The conductors are secured by steel wedges.
• The iron core is supported by a steel housing.
 Design Construction

Non Salient Pole (round rotor) Salient Pole Rotor

• The round rotor is used high speed (3600 rpm) machines. • The poles are bolted to the shaft
• A forged iron core (not laminated, DC) is installed on the shaft. • Each pole has a DC winding.
• Slots are milled in the iron and insulated copper bars are placed in the slots. • The DC winding is connected to the slip-rings(not
• The slots are closed by wedges and re-enforced with steel rings. shown)
• A DC source supplies the winding with DC through
brushes pressed into the slip ring
• A fan is installed on the shaft to assure air
circulation and effective cooling
• Low speed, large hydro-generator may have more
than one hundred poles.
• These generators are frequently mounted vertically.
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

If a magnetic field is moved near a conductor, the field will bend

around the conductor as shown in the diagram below. Notice the
fields around the conductor in the centre (cross-section view) with
the magnet (two poles shown) being drawn down past it.
For the conductor in Figure 28

• There is a resulting force against the conductor

• A circular magnetic field built up around the conductor
• A potential to do work is developed

As the magnetic field moves past the wire, energy from the
moving magnetic field is transferred to the wire and a potential is
built up in it as it moves. The wire then has the ability to produce
power.
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

The magnitude of the driving EMF force can be easily

demonstrated. In the above diagram (Figure 29) a
concentrated source of magnetic flux (magnet) is moved into
and out of, a coil of wire and the result is observed on a
voltmeter.

Remembering the right-hand rule, we observe that the meter

will move upscale and down scale while the magnet is in
motion in and out of the coil. The voltage produced is both
polarity sensitive and direction sensitive. Also, the voltage
increases in magnitude as the rate of movement increases
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

Transformer Action
By combining the previous two principles, we now have the
basic operation of a transformer:

When alternating current (I1) is forced by a potential (V1)

through a conductor, a magnetic field consisting of lines of flux
(M) is set up around the conductor.

When the magnetic field (M) moves relative to a conductor, a

potential (V2) is produced across that conductor. This will
supply a current (I 2) to connected load.

In the example below, since both coils share the same flux (M)
then the input and output EMF.s are proportional to the number
of turns of conductor around that flux:

E2/E 1 = N2/N1

Or the output voltage = V2 = V1 x (N2/N1)

Although the concept is simple, it is the basis of every

transformer. From the largest power transformer to the smallest
found in logic controllers, the only difference is the construction
due to voltage level, KVA rating and alternating frequency.
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

In the previous section, we examined the magnetic force on a
conductor and the resulting EMF (Voltage) produced. If the
conductor formed a closed loop, this voltage would create
current in the conductor. In the diagram, the + mark on the
conductor represents the tail of the current direction arrow. If
current is forced through the conductor by an external
potential, the reaction to the external magnetic field is
increased. Any increase in coil current has a proportional
increase in force against the magnetic field.

The following Figure 31 demonstrates the effect of placing a

loop of wire in a magnetic field.

In the cross section view (Figure 32) below, when electric

current is forced into the wire by an external electrical potential,
side A will be thrust downwards and side B moved upwards.
The loop of wire will then try to turn counter-clockwise. This
basic rotational action is the principle behind all motors. It
should also be noted at this point that the force created by the
dc current in the coil is the principal behind dc excitation in the
rotors (rotating component) of generators. Generator action will
be pursued later in this module.
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

Induced Voltage in a Conductor

Although the previous diagram depicts a basic dc motor
operation, ac motors use the same principles. Below is a series
ac motor showing the current movement during the two
directions of alternating current flow. Note that a constant
forward output torque would be produced even with an
alternating input current.

The alternating current fed through carbon brushes to the

centre armature is reversed every half cycle. With the current
applied in such a manner, the main stationary field and the
rotating field remain in the same relative direction. The term
often used is the commutating action. Constant clockwise rotor
direction is thereby maintained.
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

Up to this point, we have examined the various relationships
between Voltage, Current and Magnetic Flux and the
equipment that use these principles:

• Transformer Action . Magnetic field created by a current

carrying conductor and induced voltage
produced by a changing magnetic field.

• Motor Action - Force produced by a magnetic field on a

current carrying conductor.

Now, we will examine the Voltage produced in a conductor by a

rotating magnetic field. For ease of explanation, we will view it
first as magnetic field is stationary and the conductor rotating.
If the conductor is formed into a coil and rotated at constant
speed (Figure 34), the resulting EMF (measured on slip rings)
reverses its direction at time intervals corresponding to the coil
rotation and is continuously changing its value. The result is
that of a basic generator with a waveform as show in Figure 35
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

In the previous diagram (Figure 35) note that the points ¼
cycle and ¾ cycle are those at which the rate of cutting of the
flux reaches a maximum and, therefore, points of maximum
induced voltage E. The minimum occurs at start and ½ cycle.
The output waveform is called a sine wave or sinusoidal.
INDUCED VOLTAGE PRODUCED BY A CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD IN A CONDUCTOR

Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

In practical cases, it is usual for the wire loop to remain
stationary (stator) and for the magnetic field, to be rotated
through it. This allows the output stator coils to be heavier in
construction as compared to the rotating field coils. The field
coils would be many turns of finer wire wound on the rotating
component (rotor) and fed by dc (excitation). The basic action
is demonstrated below (fig 36), but the principle is a previously
described.

Poles
It is important to point out that the illustrations presented have
only shown one set of poles. This is purely for analysis and
ease of viewing. The prime mover would have to rotate at 60
revolutions per second or 3600 rpm to produce a 60-cycle
waveform. Water-driven generators at 300 rpm would of course
have 12 sets of poles. It is enough to say that the number of
poles only affects the required rotor speed. The general theory
remains the same.
 Field Excitation and Exciters

• DC field excitation is an important part of the overall design of a synchronous generator

• The field excitation must ensure not only a stable AC terminal voltage, but must also respond to sudden
load changes
• Rapid field excitation response is important

1. slip rings link the rotor’s field winding to an external dc source

2. dc generator exciter
i. a dc generator is built on the same shaft as the ac generator’s rotor
Three methods of ii. a commutator rectifies the current that is sent to the field winding
excitation 3. brushless exciter
i. an ac generator with fixed field winding and a rotor with a three
phase circuit
ii. diode/SCR rectification supplies dc current to the field windings
Typical brushless exciter system
 Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuit (round rotor)

• DC current in the field winding produces the main flux, ϕ𝑓 jXAR jXA RA IA
• ϕ𝑓 induces an emf, 𝐸𝐺 , in the armature winding. Field Winding Armature Reaction Armature winding
effect modeled as parameter
• Depending on the load condition, the armature current 𝐼𝐴 is a voltage drop
established. In the following discussions, it is assumed to be
a lagging power factor. DC VT
• I𝐴 produces its own flux due to armature reaction, 𝐸𝐴𝑅 is the EG (=EA)
induced emf by ϕ𝐴𝑅 .
• The resulting phasor, 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸𝐺 + 𝐸𝐴𝑅 is the “true”
induced emf that is available.

If the machine is 3 phase, the same equivalent circuit is used. After

solving the single-phase circuit, then proper 3 phase values (line-
line voltage or 3-phase power) should be calculated.
Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuit (round rotor)

A 3 ø, 5 kVA, 208V, four-pole, 60 Hz, star-connected synchronous machine has negligible stator winding resistance and a synchronous
reactance of 8 ohms per phase at rated terminals voltage.
Determine the excitation voltage and the power angle when the machine is delivering rated kVA at 0.8 pf lagging. Draw the phasor
diagram for this condition.

Solution

The per phase equivalent circuit for the synchronous generator

208
𝑉𝑡 = = 120 𝑉/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
√3

Stator current in rated kVA:

5000
𝐼𝑎 = = 13.9 𝐴
√3 × 208
ϕ = −36.9 ˚ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑓 𝑜𝑓 0.8
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑉𝑡 < 0˚ + 𝐼𝑎 𝐽𝑋𝑠
= 120<0˚ + 13.9<-36.9˚×8<90°
= 206.9 <25.5˚
Example

Excitation Voltage, 𝐸𝑓 = 206.9 𝑉/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒

Power Angle, 𝛿 = +25.5°
 Armature Reaction in Synchronous Machines

Armature Reaction refers to

• The influence on the magnetic field in the air gap when the
phase windings a, b, & c on the stator are connected across a
load.

• The flux produced by the armature winding reacts with the flux
set up by the poles on the rotor, causing the total flux to
change.
Figure.1 (a) The per-phase equivalent circuit of a
synchronous generator without armature reaction while
depicting the revolving field produced by the rotor.

Figure.1 (a) The phasor diagrams for a (b) lagging pf, (c) unity pf, and (d) leading pf.
 Armature Reaction in Synchronous Machines

(a) If 𝜙𝑃 is the flux per pole in the generator under no load, then
the generated voltage 𝐸𝑎 must lag 𝜙𝑃 by 90˚, as shown in
Figure 2.
(b) Since the power factor is unity, the phase current 𝐼ሚ𝑎 is in phase
with the terminal phase voltage 𝑉෩𝑎 .
(c) As the phase current 𝐼ሚ𝑎 passes through the armature winding,
its magnetomotive force (mmf) produces a flux 𝜙𝑎𝑟 which is in
phase with 𝐼ሚ𝑎 . The effective flux 𝜙𝑒 per pole in the generator
is the algebraic sum of the two fluxes; that is, 𝜙𝑒 = 𝜙𝑝 + 𝜙𝑎𝑟
,as shown in the figure. Figure 2: Phasor diagram depicting the effect of
(d) The flux 𝜙𝑎𝑟 , in turn, induces an emf 𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 in the armature armature reaction when the power factor is unity.
winding. 𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 is called the armature reaction emf. The
armature reaction emf 𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 lags the flux 𝜙𝑎𝑟 by 90˚ . Hence the
effective generated voltage per-phase 𝐸෨𝑒 is the algebraic sum
of the no-load voltage 𝐸෨𝑎 and the armature reaction emf 𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 .
That is, 𝐸෨𝑒 + 𝐸෨𝑎 + 𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 . An equivalent circuit showing the
armature reaction emf is given in Figure 3.
(e) The per-phase terminal voltage 𝑉෨𝑎 in obtained by subtracting
the voltage drops 𝐼ሚ𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗෩𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑎 from 𝐸෨𝑒 . In other words,
𝐸෨𝑒 = 𝑉෨𝑎 + 𝐼ሚ𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑎 )

Figure 3: A per-phase equivalent circuit showing the induced emf

in the armature winding due to the armature reaction.
 Armature Reaction in Synchronous Machines

From the phasor diagram, it should be obvious that the armature reaction
has reduced the effective flux per pole when the power factor of the load is
unity. Also, the terminal voltage is smaller than the generated voltage.
By following the above sequence of events, we can obtain the phasor
diagrams for the lagging (figure 4) and the leading (Figure 5) power factors.
From these figures it is evident that the resultant flux is (smaller/larger) with
armature reaction for the (lagging/leading) power factor that without it. In
addition, the terminal voltage 𝑉෨𝑎 is (higher/lower) than the generated voltage
𝐸෨𝑎 when the power factor is (leading/lagging). Since the flux per pole 𝜙𝑃 is
different for each of the three load conditions, the field current 𝐼𝑓 must be
adjusted each time the load is changed.
Since the armature reaction emf 𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 lags the current 𝐼ሚ𝑎 by 90 ˚, we can also Figure 4: The phasor diagram showing the effect of
express it as armature reaction when the power factor is lagging.
𝐸෨𝑎𝑟 = − 𝑗𝐼ሚ𝑎 𝑋𝑚
Where, 𝑋𝑚 , a constant of proportionality, is known as the magnetization
reactance.
Both the magnetization reactance and the leakage reactance are present at
the same time. It is rather difficult to separate one reactance from the other.
For this reason, the two reactances are combined together and the sum
𝑋𝑠 = 𝑋𝑚 + 𝑋𝑎
is called the synchronous reactance. The synchronous reactance is usually
very large compared with the resistance of the armature winding. We can
now define the synchronous impedance on a per-phase basis as 𝑍෨𝑠 = Figure 5: The phasor diagram showing the effect of armature
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠 reaction when the power factor of the load is leading.
 Synchronous Generator Tests

To obtain the parameters of a synchronous generator, we perform

three simple tests as described below.

The Resistance Test

This test is conducted to measure-winding resistance of a synchronous
generator when it is at rest and the field winding is open. The
resistance is measured between two lines at a time and the average of
the three resistance readings is taken to be the measured value of the
resistance, 𝑅𝐿 , from line to line. If the generator is Y-Connected, the
per-phase resistance is
𝑅𝑎 = 0.5 ∗ 𝑅𝐿
 Synchronous Generator Tests

The Open-Circuit Test

The open-circuit test, or the no-load test, is performed by
1) Generator is rotated at the rated speed.
2) No load is connected at the terminals.
3) Field current is increased from 0 to maximum.
4) Record values of the terminal voltage and field current value.

With the terminals open, 𝐼𝐴=0, so 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉𝜑. It is thus possible to Circuit diagram to perform open-circuit test.
construct a plot of 𝐸𝐴 or 𝑉𝑇 vs 𝐼𝐹 graph. This plot is called open-circuit
characteristic (OCC) of a generator. With this characteristic, it is
possible to find the internal generated voltage of the generator for any
given field current.

The OCC follows a straight-line relation as long as the magnetic circuit

of the synchronous generator does not saturate. Since, in the linear
region, most of the applied mmf is consumed by the air-gap, the
straight line is appropriately called the air-gap line.

Open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of a generator

 Synchronous Generator Tests

The Short-Circuit Test

The short-circuit test provides information about the current
capabilities of a synchronous generator. It is performed by
1) Generator is rotated at rated speed.
2) Adjust field current to 0.
3) Short circuit the terminals.
4) Measure armature current or line current as the field current is
increased.

Circuit diagram to perform short-circuit test.

SCC is essentially a straight line. To understand why this
characteristic is a straight line, look at the equivalent circuit below
when the terminals are short circuited.
When the terminals are short circuited, the armature current 𝐼𝐴 is:
𝐸𝐴
𝐼𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝑠
And its magnitude is:

𝐸𝐴
𝐼𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴2 + 𝑋𝑆2
Short-circuit characteristic (SCC) of a generator
 Synchronous Generator Tests

From both tests, here we can find the internal machine impedance
(𝐸𝐴 from OCC, 𝐼𝐴 , from SCC):
𝐸𝐴
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑅𝐴2 + 𝑋𝑆2 =
𝐼𝐴
Since 𝑋𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝐴 , the equation reduces to:
𝐸𝐴 𝑉𝜙𝑂𝐶
𝑋𝑆 ≈ =
𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐴

Short Circuit Ratio:

Ration of the field current required for the rated voltage at open
circuit to the field current required for rated armature current at short
circuit.
𝐼𝑓,𝑂𝐶
𝑆𝐶𝑅 =
𝐼𝑓,𝑆𝐶
 Voltage regulation of Alternator

The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in

terminal voltage froom no-load to load condition expressed as per unit
or percentage of terminal voltage at load condition; the speed and
excitation conditions remaining same.
𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
Voltage regulation , 𝑉. 𝑅. = × 100%
𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
= 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑉𝐹𝐿

Determination of Voltage Regulation

The following are the three methods which are used to determine the
voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical type Alternators

1. Synchronous impedance /EMF method

2. Ampere-turn /MMF method
3. Potier /ZPE method
 Voltage regulation of Alternator

1. Synchronous impedance /EMF method 2. ampere-turn / MMF Method

Synchronous impedance is calculated from OCC and SCC The ampere-turn /MMF method is the converse of the EMF
as method in the sense that instead of having the phasor addition
of various voltage drops /EMFs, here the phasor addition of
𝑍𝑠 = 𝐸0 Τ𝐼𝑆𝐶 (for same 𝐼𝑓 )
MMF required for the voltage drops are carried out. Further the
A compromised value of 𝑍𝑠 is normally estimated by talking effect of saturation is also taken care of.
the ratio of (𝐸0 Τ𝐼𝑆𝐶 ) at normal field current 𝐼𝑓 . A normal field Data required for MMF method are:
current 𝐼𝑓 is one which gives rated voltage 𝑉𝑟 on open circuit.
𝑍𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟 Τ𝐼𝑆𝐶 • Effective resistance per phase of the 3-phase winding R
Advantages: • Open circuit characteristic (OCC) at rated speed / frequency
• Short circuit characteristic (SCC) at rated speed / frequency
• Simple no load test (for obtaining OCC and SCC) are to
be conducted
• Calculation procedure is much simpler
Disadvantages:
• The values of voltage regulation obtained by this method
is always higher than the actual value.
 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators

Generators are rarely used in isolated situations. More commonly,

generators are used in parallel, often massively in parallel, such as in
the power grid. The following steps must be adhered to:

• When adding a generator to an existing power grid:

1. RMS line voltages of the two generators must be the same
2. Phase sequence must be the same.
3. Phase angles of the corresponding phases must be the
same
4. Frequency must be the same.
 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators (Generator Under Load)

The behavior of a synchronous generator depends upon the connected

load
• Two basic load categories
• Isolated loads
• Infinite bus
• Isolated loads with a lagging pf
• Current lags the terminal voltage, E
• The voltage drop across the synchronous reactance, 𝐸𝑋 , leads
the current by 90˚
• The induced voltage, 𝐸0 , generated by the flux, ø, is equal to the
phasor sum of 𝐸 and 𝐸𝑋
• Isolated loads with a leading pf
• Current leads the terminal voltage, 𝐸
• the voltage drop across the synchronous reactance , 𝐸𝑋 , leads
the current by 90˚
• the induced voltage, 𝐸0 , generated by the flux, ø, is equal to the
phasor sum of 𝐸 and 𝐸𝑋
• note that 𝐸0 always leads 𝐸 by the angle 𝛿
• for lagging loads 𝐸0 is greater that 𝐸
• for lagging loads 𝐸 is greater that 𝐸0
 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators (Synchronization of a Generator)

• Often two or more generators are connected in parallel to supply a common load in large utility systems
 Connecting a generator to other generators is called paralleling
 many paralleled generators behave like an infinite bus
• voltage and frequency are constant and cannot be easily altered
 before connecting a generator to an electrical grid, it must be synchronized
• the generator frequency is equal to the system frequency
• the generator voltage is equal to the system voltage
• the generator voltage is in phase with the system voltage
• the phase sequence of the generator is the same as that of the system

Synchronizing may be achieved with the help of synchronizing lamps, the rotary lamp method being the most popular.
Alternatively, a device known as the synchroscope may conveniently be used to facilitate synchronizing.
• To synchronize a generator
 adjust the speed regulator of the prime mover so that frequencies are close
 adjust the excitation so that generator voltage and system voltage are equal
 observe the phase angle by means of a synchro scope, which indicates the phase angle between two voltages
• the pointer rotates proportional to the frequency difference
• a zero mark indicates a zero degree phase angle
• the speed regulator is adjusted so that the pointer barely creeps across the dial
 on the zero mark, the line circuit breaker is closed
 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators (Connecting to an Infinite Bus)

• An infinite bus system is so powerful that is imposes its own

 Voltage magnitude and frequency
 Once an apparatus is connected to an infinite bus, it becomes part of it
 For a synchronized generator , the operator can only vary two machine parameters
• The field excitation current , 𝐼𝑋
• The prime mover’s mechanical torque, 𝑇

• Varying the exciting current

 Impacts the induced voltage 𝐸0
 Causes a current to flow that is 90 degrees out of phase due to the synchronous reactance 𝐼 = (𝐸0 − 𝐸)Τ𝑗𝑋𝑠
 Does not affect the flow of active (real) power
 Does cause reactive power to flow
Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators (Connecting to an Infinite Bus)

Generator floating on an infinite Bus

Over-excited generator floating on an infinite bus

Under-excited generator floating on an infinite bus