ELECTRONIC

NAVIGATION
Lesson-6a:
Satellite Navigation
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 NAVSAT, The First Satellite Navigation
System The Navy Navigation Satellite
System (NAVSAT, also known as
TRANSIT) was the first operational satellite
navigation system.
 The system’s accuracy was better than 0.1
nautical mile anywhere in the world.
 Started in 1967.
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 NAVSAT uses the Doppler shift of radio
signals transmitted from a satellite to
measure the relative velocity between the
satellite and the navigator.
 Knowing the satellite orbit precisely, the
navigator’s absolute position can be
accurately determined from the time rate of
change of range to the satellite.
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 The NAVSAT consists of 10 orbiting
satellites and 3 orbiting spares; a network of
tracking stations continuously monitoring
the satellites and updating the information
they transmit; and the receivers and
computers for processing signals.

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 Each satellite is in a nominally circular
polar orbit at an approximate altitude of 600
nautical miles.
 The transit launch program ended in 1988.
According to the Federal Radio navigation
Plan, the Navy will cease operation of
NAVSAT by the end of 1996, as the new
Global Positioning System (GPS) comes
into operation. 5
Doppler transit satellite navigation

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GPS

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 GPS is the shortened form of
NAVSTAR GPS.

This is an acronym for NAVigation

System with Time And Ranging Global
Positioning System.

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 GPS is a satellite-based system that uses a
constellation of 24 satellites to give a user
an accurate position.
 Provides extremely accurate 3D location
data as well as velocity and time.
 3 LOPs provide a Lat. & Long.
 4 LOPs provide Lat., Long. & Altitude

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2. System Overview
 Total GPS configuration is comprised of
three distinct segments:
1. The Space Segment – Satellites orbiting
the earth.
2. The Control Segment – Stations
positioned on the earth
3. The User Segment - Anybody that
receives and uses the GPS signal.
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NAVSTAR Global Positioning
System (GPS)
 GPS = Global Positioning System
– A space based, all-weather, jam resistant,
continuous operation, worldwide radio
navigation system.
 Provides extremely accurate 3D location
data as well as velocity and time.
 3 LOPs provide a Lat. & Long.
 4 LOPs provide Lat., Long. & Altitude
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 The Space Segment is designed to consist of
24 satellites orbiting the earth at
approximately 20200km every 12 hours.

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 The space segment is so designed that there
will be a minimum of 4 satellites visible
above a 15° cut-off angle at any point of the
earth’s surface at any one time.
 The orbital planes have an inclination
relative to the equator of 55° Four satellites
are the minimum that must be visible for
most applications.
 Experience shows that there are usually at
least 5 satellites visible above 15° for most
of the time and quite often there are 6 or 7
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satellites visible.
 Each GPS satellite has several very accurate
atomic clocks on board. The clocks operate
at a fundamental frequency of 10.23MHz.
This is used to generate the signals that are
broadcast from the satellite.

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 The satellites broadcast two carrier waves
constantly. These carrier waves are in the L
Band (used for radio), and travel to earth at
the speed of light.

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 These carrier waves are derived from the
fundamental frequency, generated by a very
precise atomic clock:
 The L1 carrier is broadcast at 1575.42 MHz
(10.23 x 154)
 The L2 carrier is broadcast at 1227.60 MHz
(10.23 x 120).

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 L1 carrier then has two codes modulated
upon it.
 C/A Code or Coarse/Acquisition Code is
modulated at 1.023 MHz (10.23/10) and
 P Code or Precision Code is modulated at
10.23 MHz

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 L2 carrier has just one code modulated upon
it.
 L2 P Code is modulated at 10.23 MHz. GPS
receivers use the different codes to
distinguish between satellites.
 The codes can also be used as a basis for
making pseudo range measurements and
therefore calculate a position.
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GPS Signal Structure

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2.2 Control Segment
 The Control Segment consists of
 1 master control station,
 5 monitor stations and
 4 ground antennas distributed amongst 5
locations roughly on the earth’s equator.
 Control Segment tracks the GPS satellites,
updates their orbiting position and calibrates
and synchronises their clocks.
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 A further important function is to determine
the orbit of each satellite and predict it’s
path for the following 24 hours. This
information is uploaded to each satellite and
subsequently broadcast from it.
 This enables the GPS receiver to know
where each satellite can be expected to be
found.
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 The satellite signals are read at Ascension,
Diego Garcia and Kwajalein.
 The measurements are then sent to the
Master Control Station in Colorado Springs
where they are processed to determine any
errors in each satellite.
 The information is then sent back to the
four monitor stations equipped with ground
antennas and uploaded to the satellites. 24
Control Segment Stations

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2.3 User Segment
 User Segment comprises of anyone using a
GPS receiver to receive the GPS signal and
determine their position and/or time.
Typical applications within the user
segment are land navigation for hikers,
vehicle location, surveying, marine
navigation, aerial navigation, machine
control etc.
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3. Working principle
 There are several different methods for
obtaining a position using GPS. The method
used depends on the accuracy required by
the user and the type of GPS receiver
available.
 The techniques can be broken down into
three basic classes:

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 1-Autonomous Navigation using a single
stand-alone receiver. Used by hikers, ships
that are far out at sea and the military.
Position Accuracy is better than 100 m for
civilian users and about 20 m for military
users.

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 2-Differentially corrected positioning.
More commonly known as DGPS, this
gives an accuracy of between 0.5-5 m. Used
for inshore marine navigation, GIS data
acquisition, precision farming etc.

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 3-Differential Phase position. Gives an
accuracy of 0.5-20mm.Used for many
surveying tasks, machine control etc.

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 3.1 Simple Navigation
3.1.1 Satellite ranging

All GPS positions are based on

measuring the distance from the
satellites to the GPS receiver on the
earth. This distance to each satellite can
be determined by the GPS receiver.

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If you know the distance to three points
relative to your own position, you can
determine your own position relative to
those three points.

From the distance to one satellite we

know that the position of the receiver
must be at some point on the surface of
an imaginary sphere which has it’s origin
at the satellite. By intersecting three
imaginary spheres the receiver position
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can be determined.
Intersection of three imaginary spheres

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The problem with GPS is that only
pseudoranges and the time at which the
signal arrived at the receiver can be
determined.

Thus there are four unknowns to

determine;
position (X, Y, Z) and time of travel of the
signal. Observing to four satellites
produces four equations which can be
solved, enabling these unknowns to be34
determined.
At least four satellites are required to obtain
position and time in 3 dimensions
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3.1.2 Calculating the distance to
the satellite
In order to calculate the distance to
each satellite, one of Isaac Newton’s
laws of motion is used:

Distance = Velocity x Time

GPS requires the receiver to calculate

the distance from the receiver to the
satellite.
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The Velocity is the velocity of the radio
signal. Radio waves travel at the speed of
light, 290,000 km per second (186,000
miles per second).

The Time is the time taken for the radio

signal to travel from the satellite to the
GPS receiver. This is a little harder to
calculate, since you need to know when
the radio signal left the satellite and when
it reached the receiver.
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Calculating the Time
The satellite signal has two codes
modulated upon it, the C/A code and the P-
code.
The C/A code is based upon the time given
by a very accurate atomic clock. The
receiver also contains a clock that is used
to generate a matching C/A code.
The GPS receiver is then able to “match”
or correlate the incoming satellite code to
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the receiver generated code.

The C/A code is a digital code that is
“pseudo random” or appears to be
random. In actual fact it is not random
and repeats one thousand times every
second.
In this way, the time taken for the radio
signal to travel from the satellite to the
GPS receiver is calculated.

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3.1.3 Error Sources

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 3.1.3 Error Sources
These error sources are:
1. Ionospheric and atmospheric delays
2. Satellite and Receiver Clock Errors
3. Multipath
4. Dilution of Precision
5. Selective Availability (S/A)
6. Anti Spoofing (A-S)
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1. Ionospheric and Atmospheric
delays
As the satellite signal passes through the
ionosphere, it can be slowed down, the
effect being similar to light refracted
through a glass block. These atmospheric
delays can introduce an error in the range
calculation as the velocity of the signal is
affected. (Light only has a constant
velocity in a vacuum).
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The ionosphere does not introduce a
constant delay on the signal. There are
several factors that influence the
amount of delay caused by the
ionosphere.
Errors can be about 5 metres.

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a. Satellite elevation.
Signals from low elevation satellites
will be affected more than signals from
higher elevation satellites.
This is due to the increased distance
that the signal passes through the
atmosphere.

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b. The density of the ionosphere is affected
by the sun. At night, there is very little
ionospheric influence. In the day, the sun
increases the effect of the ionosphere and
slows down the signal.

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The amount by which the density of the
ionosphere is increased varies with solar
cycles (sunspot activity).
Sunspot activity peaks approximately
every 11 years. The last peak was on
2000.

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In addition to this, solar flares can also
randomly occur and also have an effect
on the ionosphere.
Ionospheric errors can be mitigated by
using one of two methods:

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-The first method involves taking an
average of the effect of the reduction in
velocity of light caused by the
ionosphere.
This correction factor can then be
applied to the range calculations.
However, this relies on an average and
obviously this average condition does
not occur all of the time. This method is
therefore not the optimum solution to
Ionospheric Error mitigation. 54
-The second method involves using “dual-
frequency” GPS receivers. Such receivers
measure the L1 and the L2 frequencies of
the GPS signal.

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It is known that when a radio signal
travels through the ionosphere it slows
down at a rate inversely proportional to
itís frequency.
Hence, if the arrival times of the two
signals are compared, an accurate
estimation of the delay can be made.
Note that this is only possible with dual
frequency GPS receivers. Most receivers
built for navigation are single frequency.
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c. Water Vapour also affects the GPS
signal. Water vapor contained in the
atmosphere can also affect the GPS
signal. This effect, which can result in a
position degradation can be reduced by
using atmospheric models.

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2. Satellite and Receiver clock
errors
Even though the clocks in the satellite are very
accurate (to about 3 nanoseconds), they do sometimes
drift slightly and cause small errors, affecting the
accuracy of the position. The US Department of
Defense monitors the satellite clocks using the Control
Segment and can correct any drift that is found.
These errors can degrade the final calculated position
by about 1.5 metres

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3. Multipath Errors
Multipath occurs when the receiver
antenna is positioned close to a large
reflecting surface such as a lake or
building.
The satellite signal does not travel
directly to the antenna but hits the nearby
object first and is reflected into the
antenna creating a false measurement.
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Multi path error 60
Multipath can be reduced by use of
special GPS antennas that incorporate a
ground plane (a circular, metallic disk
about 50cm (2 feet) in diameter) that
prevent low elevation signals reaching the
antenna.
For highest accuracy, the preferred
solution is use of a choke ring antenna. A
choke ring antenna has 4 or 5 concentric
rings around the antenna that trap any
indirect signals.
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Choke-Ring Antenna

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Multipath only affects high
accuracy, survey type
measurements. Simple handheld
navigation receivers do not employ
such techniques.

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4. Dilution of Precision
The Dilution of Precision (DOP) is a
measure of the strength of satellite
geometry and is related to the spacing and
position of the satellites in the sky.
The DOP can magnify the effect of satellite
ranging errors.
The principle can be best illustrated by
diagrams:
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Well spaced satellites - low uncertainty
of position

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Good geometric dilution of precision

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Poorly spaced satellites - high
uncertainty of position

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Poor geometric dilution of precision

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Different types of Dilution of Precision or DOP can be
calculated depending on the dimension.
VDOP - Vertical Dilution of Precision. Gives accuracy
degradation in vertical direction.
HDOP - Horizontal Dilution of Precision.Gives accuracy
degradation in horizontal direction.
PDOP -Positional Dilution of Precision.Gives accuracy
degradation in 3D position.
GDOP- Geometric Dilution of Precision.Gives accuracy
degradation in 3D position and time.

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The best way of minimizing the effect of
GDOP is to observe as many satellites as
possible. Remember however, that the
signals from low elevation satellites are
generally influenced to a greater degree by
most error sources.
As a general guide, when surveying with
GPS it is best to observe satellites that are
15° above the horizon. The most accurate
positions will generally be computed when
the GDOP is low,(usually 8 or less).
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5. Selective Availability (S/A)
Selective Availability is a process applied
by the U.S. Department of Defense to the
GPS signal.

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This is intended to deny civilian and
hostile foreign powers the full accuracy of
GPS by subjecting the satellite clocks to a
process known as “dithering” which alters
their time slightly.
Additionally, the ephemeris (or path that
the satellite will follow) is broadcast as
being slightly different from what it is in
reality. The end result is a degradation in
position accuracy.
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It is worth noting that S/A affects civilian
users using a single GPS receiver to
obtain an autonomous position. Users of
differential systems are not significantly
affected by S/A.
Currently, it is planned that S/A will be
switched off by 2006 at the latest.

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6. Anti-Spoofing (A-S)
Anti-Spoofing is similar to S/A in that its
intention is to deny civilian and hostile
powers access to the P-code part of the
GPS signal and hence force use of the
C/A code which has S/A applied to it.

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Anti-Spoofing encrypts the P-code into a
signal called the Y-code. Only users with
military GPS receivers (the US and it’s
allies) can de-crypt the Y-code.
Military receivers are more accurate
because they do not use the C/A code to
calculate the time taken for the signal to
reach the receiver. They use the P-code.

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The P-code is modulated onto the
carrier wave at 10.23 Hz. The C/A
code is modulated onto the carrier
wave at 1.023 Hz. Ranges can be
calculated far more accurately using
the P-code as this code is occurring
10 times as often as the C/A code per
second.

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The P-code is often subjected to Anti
Spoofing (A/S). This means that only the
military, equipped with special GPS
receivers can read this encryted P-code
(also known as the Y-code).
For these reasons, users of military GPS
receivers usually get a position with an
accuracy of around 5m whereas, civilian
users of comparable GPS receivers will
only get between about 15-100m position
accuracy. 77
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Navigation Review

 Horizontal datum is a chart coordinate

reference system
 Although nautical charts are in the
process of being standardized, not all are
drawn to the same datum

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 Navigation Review

The datum is shown on each chart

GPS receivers must

be adjusted
to the same datum
as used on the chart!

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 Navigation Review
 A waypoint (WPT or WP) is a designated
location with geographic coordinates
 Waypoints are used extensively in
electronic navigation
– As boundaries between voyage segments
– To mark turn points, destinations, navigational
aids
– To mark hazards to navigation

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Navigation Review
 GPS receivers enable waypoints to be
entered and stored in various ways (e.g., in
lat/lo units, in terms of distance and bearing,
etc.)
 A sequence of waypoints defines a planned
route--many GPS receivers can store routes
as well as waypoints

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Navigation Terms

 Cross track error (XTE) - boat’s distance

from intended track
 GPS receivers can be adjusted to express
bearings or courses relative to magnetic or
true north--a GPS receiver is not a
compass!

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In Brief
 GPS is a satellite navigation system
developed by the US Dept. of Defense
(DOD)
 GPS provides continuous, all-weather, three-
dimensional, positioning information
 GPS is used by aviators, mariners,
surveyors, truck and auto operators, and
hikers
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In Brief

 Positional accuracy is now

<30 meters 95% of the time

 --differential GPS (DGPS) is yet more

accurate, but requires additional
equipment

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Overview of GPS

 GPS system includes 24 operational

satellites plus 3 (or more) spares in orbit
at altitudes of approximately 20,200 km
(at least 5 are normally visible above the
horizon at any time)

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 Overview of GPS
 Receivers acquire and process data from
satellites to estimate the user’s position
– Some use all available data for optimal
positioning--others select and use most suitable
combination
– Because satellites positions vary continually,
the receiver switches satellites in use
– Receivers make additional calculations

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Position Determination

 Receivers can
estimate “pseudo
range” from satellite
data

 Intersection of LOPs
determines position

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Satellite geometry affects fix
accuracy

Many receivers can display

fix accuracy

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GPS
How Does It
Work?

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GPS
How it works in
five logical steps
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1. The basis of GPS
operation is
“triangulation” from
satellites

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2. To “triangulate,” the GPS
receiver measures the
distance from a satellite
to the receiver using the
travel time of radio
signals

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3. To measure travel time,
GPS needs very accurate
timing, achieved with
some electronic tricks

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4. Along with the satellites’
distance, exactly where
they are located in space
must be known

High orbits and careful

monitoring are the secret
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5. Finally, any delays the
signal experiences as it
travels through the
atmosphere must be
corrected

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103

ANIMATION
Dilution of Precision
 Dilution of Precision
(DOP) is a measure of
satellite fix geometry
quality
 Figure at far left has
lower (better) DOP
 Receivers measure and
Good Poor display DOP
Geometry Geometry

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Signal Quality and Accuracy

 Height of bars in
display shows signal
quality from each
satellite
 Numbers show
positions of satellites
currently in view

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Probable accuracy
may also be shown

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Overview of GPS
 There Were Two “systems”
– Precise Positioning System (PPS) for military
users only
– Standard Positioning System (SPS) for civilian
users, was limited by a scrambling technique
termed selective availability (SA) which
degraded accuracy but was
turned off May 1, 2000

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Overview of GPS
 As of Midnight GMT May 1, 2000
Selective Availability (SA)
has been discontinued

 The Military has the ability

to “mess up” accuracy in
specific areas selectively
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 DGPS
(operated by USCG)
enables local corrections
for errors

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 WAAS
Wide Area
Augmentation
System
(FAA Sponsored)
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 Specifications

 GPS <30 meters 95% of time

Coverage --world wide
 DGPS < 10 meters 95% of time
Coverage -- 200 miles
 WAAS < 2.5 meters 99.9% of time
Coverage--world wide
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CEP = Circular Error Probable
SEP = Spherical Error Probable

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 24 hours 24 hours
5/1/2000 5/2/2000

With Without
Selective Availability

95 % of the time
within 45 meters within 6.3 meters113
 DGPS
 Series of shore-based
stations broadcast
corrections to GPS
signal
 Former RDF stations
used for this purpose
 Accuracy improved to
better than 10 meters
Note: Stations on Great
Lakes not shown on this
illustration
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Differential Station 117
Basic Receiver Functions

 Determine user position continuously

 Display local time or Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT) -- now
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)

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 Basic Receiver
Functions
* Show track and ground speed
on present heading

* Accept waypoint
definition/description and
show track and distance to
any selected waypoint
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Basic Receiver Functions

 Show distance off the selected track and the

cross-track error (XTE)
 Show time to go (TTG) and estimated time of
arrival (ETA) at next waypoint
 Provide details of GPS system status

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 Basic Receiver
Functions

*Show satellite positions and

signal quality

*Sophisticated receivers have

other functions including
graphic displays
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SOG

 SOG is based upon the vessel’s speed

over the ground over an adjustable
averaging period--this may not be
highly accurate--particularly if the
speed is not constant (wind, current
effects, etc.)

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 ETA and TTG
*ETA and TTG are
based on the distance
to the waypoint and
the current SOG--these
will vary as the
vessel’s speed varies

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Basic Receiver Functions

 Most GPS receivers enable alarms to be set

– XTE alarm indicates when boat departs from
track by more than adjustable amount
– Waypoint arrival alarm informs skipper that
waypoint is within user-adjustable distance

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 Basic Receiver
Functions
*Anchor watch alarm warns
if vessel moves more than a
user-adjustable distance from
a waypoint

*Alarms should be
used sparingly
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GPS Sensors

 A GPS sensor is a receiver without any

controls or display screens
 Sensors provide output used by other
electronic components, such as radar

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 GPS Sensors

*Sensors can be coupled with

DGPS units

*A sensor serves as a back-up

receiver, but lacks many
key features

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Alarm Illustrated
 An arrival alarm
sounds whenever the
boat penetrates an
adjustable ring
around the
destination waypoint

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 Alarm

*If the waypoint is an ATON

the boat should be slowed
on hearing the alarm

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 Receiver Features
 Most receivers have several “pages” or
display options, such as
– Latitude/longitude of present position,
waypoint in use, bearing and distance
– “Road” views graphically depicting position,
XTE, and waypoint location
– “Left/right” needles
– System status

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 Receiver Features

Some receivers warn

of malfunctions

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Selecting a Receiver
 Both portable and fixed-mount receivers
made--portables function as useful
backup units
 Technical features include methods for
signal processing, number of waypoints
and routes that can be stored, availability
of database, etc.

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Selecting a Receiver
*Cost may be a criterion,
but generally you get
what you pay for

*The more features,

the higher the price

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Selecting a Receiver

 Key criteria for most users:

– Size and legibility of display
– Ease of use (including waypoints)
– Ease of data entry
– Quality of owner’s manual
– Ability to interface with other electronics

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 Antenna

*Read owner’s manual

carefully to learn
how to mount antenna
on fixed units

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Waypoint Navigation
 Waypoints are often used to define route
segments; here are some tips
– Insert waypoints at all turn points on track
– Establish some voyage waypoints close to (but
not at) aids to navigation

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 Waypoint Navigation

*Take advantage of maximum

number of characters in
defining waypoints

*Write down list of waypoints

in log for reference

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 Waypoint Navigation
 More tips:
– Where possible, select waypoints with rounded-
off coordinates to minimize transcription errors
– Plot all waypoints on a chart and measure the
distance and bearing between waypoints--this is
a handy check when underway
– Verify by plotting on large scale charts that
voyage legs are in safe water

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Intelligent use of GPS

 It is important to WP 02
check your chart
before entering
waypoints
 This course crosses
an island--and the
GPS receiver will
WP 01
help you navigate
there!
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More Waypoint Tips

*Always use the largest

scale chart available

(that which covers

the smallest area)

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 More Waypoint Tips
 Waypoints do not have to be located in the
water--e.g., locate a waypoint at a
lighthouse to enable you to know where--
and when--to look for it
 Waypoints can be used to mark hazards to
navigation--areas to avoid--as well as areas
to visit

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Intelligent use of GPS

 Where possible, select waypoints that

can be verified by other means (e.g.,
visual fixes, soundings, radar, etc.)--
do not rely on any one means of
navigation

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 Intelligent use of GPS

*Do not place waypoints at

exact location of other
Aids to Navigation
(e.g., buoys)--
these can present collision
hazard with ATON
or other boats in low visibility
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Low Visibility
Harbor Approaches
 Set waypoint close to
sea buoy, others
sequenced on
approach course
 Verify position using
both buoys and other
means

146
 Low Visibility
Harbor Approaches

*Do not enter shallow

water without visual
contact with buoys!

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 Plotting GPS Positions
 Plotting GPS positions on nautical charts
based on latitude and longitude is tedious
and subject to errors
 It is easier to plot distance and bearing from
a waypoint
 Write down positions every few minutes so
that you will have a last known position in
the event of receiver failure

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Use of GPS by Sailors

 XTE can be used to

establish bounds for
sailboat tacks
 Angles can be
optimized to
maximize VMG
indication on GPS
receiver

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Use of GPS Underway
 At each waypoint, check receiver
indication of bearing and distance against
those measured on chart--this is a both a
receiver check and detects errors in
entering waypoints

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 Use of GPS Underway

*Periodically verify GPS

position using other methods

*Periodically check
for malfunctions!

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Other Tips
 Practice use of GPS during ideal
conditions to ensure familiarity with
controls and procedures
 Read the owner’s manual carefully and
master the essential features of your
GPS--there may not be time to do this in
an emergency

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 Other Tips

*Periodically
re-read owner’s
manual

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 Other Tips
 Take along hand-held GPS units as backups
to ship-mounted units--bring extra batteries
 Even if you have GPS and linked electronic
charts, bring along conventional paper
charts
 Remember that among the greatest hazards
to navigation is a bored navigator!

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NAVSTAR GPS Specifications
 Frequency: 1227 MHz, 1575 MHz
 Range: Worldwide
 Accuracy: next slide
 3 Types:
– SPS- Standard Positioning Service
– PPS-Precise Positioning Service
– Differential GPS- for military only

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 NAVSTAR GPS Accuracy

Standard Position Precise Position Service

Service (SPS) (PPS) - Military

 Position: 100 m Hor.  Position: 16 m Hor.

150 m Vert. 25 m Vert.
 Velocity: .5 m/sec  Velocity: .1 m/sec
 Time: 1 milli-  Time: 100 nano-
second seconds
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 NAVSTAR GPS Uses

Civilian Uses Military Uses

 Marine Navigation  Marine Navigation
 Law Enforcement  Air Navigation
 Hydrographic  Rendezvous
surveying
 Close Air Support
 Search and Rescue
 Mine Warfare
 Collision avoidance
 Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs)
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GPS
Advantages Disadvantages
 Continuous Coverage  Vulnerable to Attack
(regardless of weather)
 worldwide coverage
 3-D locator
 Precise Timing Standard

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 ?

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