Optical Communication

Systems
 In order to convert an analog signal to digital it is
necessary to use a sampling frequency (fs) at least
two times the highest frequency fs = 2BW (in
Hertzs) a voice channel BW = 4000 Hz
fs = 2X4000=8000 Hz
T= 125us: this is the base period for all digital
networks
8000 samples/sec X 8bits/sample = 64,000
bits/sec
 64kbit/s is the basic rate, or the unit rate, in digital
telecommunications
 PDH, SDH, SONET

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH),

Synchronous optical networking (SONET)
and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH),
are multiplexing protocols for transferring
multiple digital bit streams using lasers or
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) over the same
optical fiber.
 PDH

 PLESIOCHRONOUS : Nearly synchronous.

 DIGITAL: INFORMATION IN BINARY.

 HIERARCHY: SET OF BIT RATES IN A

HIERARCHIAL ORDER.
 Plesiochronous Multiplexing
 Plesiochronous means nearly synchronous.

 The European and American versions of the PDH

system differ slightly in the detail of their working, but the
principles are the same.

 In European system, the basic data transfer rate is a

data stream of 2.048 Mbit/s (megabits/second). For
speech transmission, this is broken down into 30 x 64
kbit/s (kilobits/second) channels plus 2 x 64 kbit/s
channels used for signaling and synchronisation.
Alternatively, the whole 2 Mbit/s may be used for non
speech purposes, for example, data transmission.
 In order to move multiple 2 Mbit/s data streams from one
place to another, they are combined together, or
"multiplexed" in groups of four. This is done by taking 1
bit from stream #1, followed by 1 bit from stream #2, then
#3, then #4. The transmitting multiplexer also adds
additional bits in order to allow the far end receiving
multiplexer to decode which bits belong to which 2-Meg
data stream, and so correctly reconstitute the original data
streams. These additional bits are called "justification" or
"stuffing" bits.

 Because each of the four 2 Mbit/s data streams is not

necessarily running at the same rate, some compensation
has to be made. The transmitting multiplexer combines the
four data streams assuming that they are running at their
maximum allowed rate. That is why it is called
Plesiochronous.
 The resulting data stream from the above
process runs at 8,448 kbit/s (about 8 Mbit/s).
Similar techniques are used to combine four
x 8 Mbit/s together, giving 34 Mbit/s. Four x
34 Mbit/s, gives 140. Four x 140 gives 565.
 565 Mbit/s is the maximum rate, typically
used to transmit data over a fibre optic
system for long distance transport.
 PDH Hierarchy Europe
Japan
397200 kbit/s 564992 kbit/s
N. America
x4 x4
97728 kbit/s 274176 kbit/s 139254 kbit/s

x3 x6 x4
32064 kbit/s 44736 kbit/s 34368 kbit/s

x5 x7 x4
6312 kbit/s 8448 kbit/s

x4 x4
1544 kbit/s 2048 kbit/s

x24 x30
64 kbit/s
 Disadvantages of PDH
 Not synchronous
 Each multiplexing section has to add overhead bits
for justification (higher rate -> more overhead)
 Non standard experiences:
Three different hierarchies with different signal
formats and line encoding methods. (expensive
interconnection equipment)
 Capacity limited to 7680 channels
 Designed mainly for voice services
 Disadvantages of PDH

• Not suitable for new services of the

Information age
• Add-drop-multiplexers are hard to build
• Lacks flexibility and manageability
 Synchronous optical networking:

 Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), are two closely related
multiplexing protocols to replace the Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting larger amounts of
telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber wire without
synchronization problems.

 SONET defined by American National Standards Institute

(ANSI) in 1985. It is used in the U.S. and Canada.

 SDH developed by the International Telecommunication Union

(ITU) in 1988. It is used in the rest of the world.
 SDH

 SYNCHRONOUS : ONE MASTER CLOCK &

ALL ELEMENTS SYNCHRONISE WITH IT.

 DIGITAL: INFORMATION IN BINARY.

 HIERARCHY: SET OF BIT RATES IN A

HIERARCHIAL ORDER.
 SDH Signal Rates
 The basic unit of framing in SDH is an STM-1 (Synchronous
Transport Module level - 1), which operates at 155.52 Mbit/s.
It is the fundamental frame or the first level of the synchronous
digital hierarchy

SDH Level Bit Rate

STM-1 155.52 Mb/s

STM-4 622.08 Mb/s

STM-16 2488.32 Mb/s

 SDH frame
The STM-1 frame is shown
as a rectangular structure of
270 columns and 9 rows. The
first 3 rows and 9 columns
contain Regenerator Section
Overhead (RSOH) and the
last 5 rows and 9 columns
contain Multiplex Section
Overhead (MSOH). The 4th
row from the top contains
pointersThe overheads
contain information from the
system itself, such as
monitoring transmission
quality, detecting failures,
managing alarms, data
communication channels,
service channels, etc.
SDH FRAME REPRESENTATION
 FRAME REPRESENTATION

The STM frame is continuous and is transmitted in a serial fashion, byte-by-

byte, row-by-row.
 BIT RATE : STM-N

The highest rate that is commonly deployed is the STM-64 circuit, which
operates at rate of just under 10 Gbit/s.
Advantages of SDH

1. High transmission rates: Transmission rates of up to

10 Gbit/s can be achieved in modern SDH systems.
SDH is therefore the most suitable technology for
backbones, which can be considered as being the
super highways in today's telecommunications
networks.
2. Simplified add & drop function: Compared with the
older PDH system, it is much easier to extract and
insert low-bit rate channels from or into the high-
speed bit streams in SDH.
3. High availability and capacity matching: With SDH, network
providers can react quickly and easily to the requirements of their
customers. For example, leased lines can be switched in a matter
of minutes. The network provider can use standardized network
elements that can be controlled and monitored from a central
location by means of a telecommunications network management
(TMN) system.

4. Reliability: Modern SDH networks include various automatic

back-up and repair mechanisms to cope with system faults.
Failure of a link or a network element does not lead to failure of
the entire network which could be a financial disaster for the
network provider. These back-up circuits are also monitored by a
management system.
5. Future-proof platform for new services: Right now, SDH is the ideal
platform for services ranging from POTS, ISDN and mobile radio
through to data communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it is able to
handle the very latest services, such as video on demand and digital
video broadcasting via ATM that are gradually becoming
established.

6. Interconnection : SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways

between different network providers and to SONET systems. The
SDH interfaces are globally standardized, making it possible to
combine network elements from different manufacturers into a
network. The result is a reduction in equipment costs as compared
with PDH.
 SONET
 SONET defines a technology for carrying
many signals of different capacities through a
synchronous, flexible, optical hierarchy.
 All clocks in the network are locked to a
common master clock .
 Basic signal in SONET is OC-1 (Optical
Channel level 1) or electrical equivalent STS-
1 (Synchronous Transport Signal level 1)
 The first step in the SONET multiplexing
process involves the generation of the lowest
level or base signal STS–1, which operates
at 51.84 Mbps. Higher-level signals are
integer multiples of STS–1, creating the
family of STS–N signals
 STS-1 Framing Structure

9
...
...
rows ...
...
...
...
...
...
90 columns 1 byte
125 usec
 Is organized in 9 rows and 90 colums .
 This frame is repeated at 8000 Hz -> 9 x 90 x 8000samples/s x 8 bit =
51.84Mbit/s
 STS-1 Framing Structure
90 columns
...
...
9 ...
...
rows
...
...
...
...
...
Section and Synchronous Payload
Line Overhead Envelope (SPE)
(3 columns)
The first three columns of each STS–1 frame make up the transport
overhead, and the last 87 columns make up the SPE (Synchronous pay
envelope)
SONET data rates:

 SONET Frame Format Line Rate (kbit/s)

STS-1 51,840
STS-3 155,520
STS-12 622,080
STS-24 1,244,160
STS-48 2,488,320
STS-96 4,976,640
STS-192 9,953,280
STS-768 39,813,120
STS-1536 79,626,120
STS-3072 159,252,240
 Advantages of SONET

 Compatibility of equipment by all vendors

 Synchronous networking
 Enhanced operations, administration and
maintenance
 More efficient add/drop multiplexing (ADM)
 self-healing ring structure to reroute traffic
around faults within a particular link
 WDM
 1

 2
   
1 2 .. 32

 :

 32

 In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing

(WDM) is a technology which multiplexes multiple optical carrier
signals on a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths
(Lambda’s) of laser light to carry different signals. Each signal has
its own dedicated bandwidth; all signals arrive at the same time,
rather than being broken up and carried in time slots.

 It is totally protocol independent (SDH, ATM, Ethernet…)

 What is Dense Wave Division
Multiplexing (DWDM) ?
 Dense Wave Division Multiplexing is a technology
that utilizes the properties of refracted light to both
combine and separate optical signals based on their
wavelengths within the optical spectrum.
 DWDM allows for a more efficient use of existing
fiber by providing multiple optical paths along a
single pair of fibers.

 The wavelengths are close (a few nm.).

 40 or more wavelengths can be used on one
fiber.
DWDM principle
 Multiple Optical signals of differing wavelengths are combined
to form a single optical signal in Transmitter side.

 A single Optical signals is refracted to separate multiple Optical signals of

differing wavelengths in receiver side.
 Benefits of DWDM
 Increases bandwidth (speed and distance)
 Provides "next generation" technologies to meet growing
data needs
 Less costly in the long run because increased fiber
capacity is automatically available; don't have to upgrade
all the time
 The ability to amplify all the wavelengths at once without
first converting them to electrical signals.
 The ability to carry signals of different speeds and types
simultaneously and transparently over the fiber.