Electronic Devices & Circuits (EDC)

PE-124
Week 1: Lecture No. 1
Prepared by: Engr. Shafaq Ejaz

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 Lecture Topic

Introduction to Electronic
Devices & Circuits.

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 Reference Material
Lecture-1 Reference Material:

1. History of Electronics
Sudhir Kumar Routray
Region 8, The University of Sheffield, England

2. Electronic Devices
Conventional Current Version
Latest Edition By Floyd

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 Lecture Contents
Introduction

History

Atomic Structure

Matter Classification

4
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 What is Electronics?

Electronic Devices & Circuits

(General Physics) of or concerned The device which A closed path

with electrons or an electron. controls the flow of through which an
Device or technology associated electric current
electrons is called
with or employing low voltage
electronic device. These flows or may flow.
current and solid state integrated
circuits or components, usually for devices are the main
transmission and/or processing of building blocks of
analog or digital data. electronic circuits..

Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of
electrons (electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases,
and semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons. This control of electrons
is accomplished by devices that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate,
and exploit the electron.
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 History of Electronics

Electronics before 20th Century

Electronics of Early 20th Century

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Before the 20th century there was a little or almost no

electronics in the day to day life of a common man.

The time before 20th century can be taken as the pre-

developmental era in the growth of electronic technology.

The formal beginning of electrical engineering goes back to

18th century when Franklin gave the explanation to the cause
of thunder and lighting. But the lucid explanation of Franklin
gave the first idea of charge flow and its consequence.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Coulomb’s theory was regarded as the first mathematical

expression that defined the electrical charge in a well defined
manner. He also invented the force of interaction between the
electrical charges, which is today known as Coulomb force
after his name.

There after the next big name was Luigi Galvani who
discovered the so called bioelectricity from his famous
experiment using the frog leg. He thought that electricity as
one of the sources of life.
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 Electronics before 20th Century

Alessandro Volta repeated Galvani’s frog leg experiment using

various types of electrodes. He concluded that the spark in the
frog-leg experiment is not due to the frog rather it has a different
reason. He told that when the copper and zinc electrodes are kept
in the acid there arises some potential difference between the
electrodes and the charges flow from one electrode to the other if
there is any physical connection between them through some
conducting wire. That was the first electric cell mad by Volta.
After his name the potential difference is also known as Voltage.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

In 1820 Oersted found that the needle of a compass is deflected

when kept near a current carrying conductor. So from that
observation he concluded that the magnetism of a compass is
affected by current. There after magnetism is considered as an
aspect of electromagnetism, not as a different entity.

Ampere proved the relationship using algebra.

Gauss also gave the alternative forms of mathematical equations

to explain electricity and magnetism. Those works of Gauss are
known as Gauss theorems.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Gauss also gave the alternative forms of mathematical equations

to explain electricity and magnetism. Those works of Gauss are
known as Gauss theorems.

It was not known why some energy in the form of potential

difference is required to make the charges flow from one end to
the other. The explanation came from the German scholar
George Simon Ohm. He for the first time introduced the concept
of resistance and conductance. In almost all the conductors there
is some resistance that opposes the flow of current through them.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Michel Faraday gave many fundamental theories which are like the
back bone to the electrical sciences. His concept of lines of forces
was not accepted by the then scientific community, but was later
found to be the fundamental fact of electromagnetism. He first gave
the knowledge of electrical power generation and made the first
transformer of the world.

Michel Faraday’s laws of electrolysis were beneficial to both the

chemists and physicists of that time.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Michel Faraday also gave the concept of inductance, which was

also developed by another great of that time, Joseph Henry.

Lenz was there to modify faraday’s second law of induction.

Maxwell’s equation is today fundamental to all theory of electrical

machinery and communication sciences.

The first achievement after Maxwell’s theory was the invention of

the electric bulbs by another genius Thomas Edison.

Maxwell was mainly using DC and was the greatest advocate of the
use of DC.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Nicola Tesla used his brain to make AC popular. He invented the

induction motor and proved that AC can be used more efficiently
than DC.

“Edison effect” or the thermionic effect: Edison found that in a

closed environment even without the physical contact of wires
there exist a small current through them when they are heated to
a sufficiently high temperature.

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 Electronics before 20th Century

Alexandra Graham Bell opened the account by inventing the

telephone. At around the same time the telegraphic communication
using the Morse code was very popular.

Mesmerized the communication science, came when the German

physicist Henry Hertz discovered the radio waves and also gave the
methods to transmit and detect them.

Russian scientist Popov and the Italian electrical engineer Marconi

invented the radio and used antennas for radio communications.

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 Electronics of Early 20th Century

In the first decade the new thing that was welcomed to the technical
world was the vacuum tube.

Marconi’s radio needs some good detectors for the receiving of the
incoming radio waves. For that reason a good rectifier was needed
which can convert the AC into DC.

Then Fleming invented the first vacuum tube using the principle
known as Edison Effect. it can work as a rectifier (change the AC
into DC). This vacuum tube filled Marconi’s need. It has two
electrodes and that’s why it was named as diode.

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 Electronics of Early 20th Century

After two years of Fleming’s diode DeFrost invented another

similar device triode, it had three electrodes. Besides the anode and
cathode there was an extra electrode known as grid. The grid was
controlling the flow of charges from the anode to the cathode. triode
had the characteristics of an amplifier. Which was an important
component in the radio and other communication devices to
strengthen the weak radio signals.

The computers were another main attraction at that time.

The invention of the television was a miraculous thing for the

mankind.
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 Electronics of Early 20th Century

Russell Ohl: PN junction diode

Bell labs (Bardeen and Brattain): found a new concept known as

“Transistor effect, point contact transistor.

Shockley: n-p-n transistor, book “Electrons and Holes in

Semiconductors”

The real electronics what it is called today was actually started after
the discovery of the transistor effect.

Jack Kilby: Integrated Circuits

Satellite Sputnik, MOSFET, Microprocessor and so on….

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 Atomic Structure
All matter (substances) is made from very tiny particles called
atoms.

Elements are the simplest substances. There are about 100 different
elements.

Each element is made up of just one particular type of atom, which

is different to the atoms in any other element.

Atoms are extremely small – they are about 0.00000001 cm wide.

To make an atom the size of a football it would have to be enlarged

by about 3,000,000,000 times.

N X3,000,000,000

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 Atomic Structure

A single grain of sand contains millions of atoms of silicon and

oxygen.

O
Si
Millions of these atoms join to form
each tiny grain of sand.
O

Each atom must therefore have an extremely small mass.

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 Atomic Structure

For some time people thought that atoms were the smallest particles
and could not be broken into anything smaller.

Scientists now know that atoms are actually made from even smaller
subatomic particles. There are three types:

Proton

Neutron

Electron
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 Atomic Structure

Protons, neutrons and electrons are NOT evenly distributed in

an atom. Bohr Atomic Model

The protons and neutrons exist in

a dense core at the centre of the
atom. This is called the nucleus.

The electrons are spread out

around the edge of the atom.
They orbit the nucleus in layers
called shells.
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 Atomic Structure
Orbits are grouped A given atom has a Each shell has a fixed maximum
into energy bands fixed number of number of electrons at
called shells. shells. permissible energy levels
(orbits).

nucleus electron
Force of attraction
Outer most shell is between +ve charged
called valence shell. nucleus & –ve charged
electrons.

neutron proton
Electrons that are in orbits
farther from the nucleus
The differences in energy have higher energy and are
levels within a shell are much less tightly bound to the
Shells are designated as atoms than those closer to
smaller than the differences
1, 2, 3 or K, L, M. the nucleus.
in energy between shells.
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 Atomic Structure

When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, the
energies of the electrons are raised

Valence electrons possess more energy, they can easily jump to

higher orbits within the shell when external energy is absorbed.

The process of raising or transferring an electron from a lower energy

state to a higher energy state is called excitation.

If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it can

escape from the outer shell and the atoms influence.

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 Atomic Structure

The departure of a valence electron leaves a previously neutral atom

with an excess of positive charge (more protons than electrons).

The process of loosing a valence electron is called ionization and

resulting positively charged atom is called positive ion. The escaped
valence electron is called free electron.

When a free electron loses energy and falls into the outer shell of
neutral atom, the atom becomes negatively charged and is called a
negative ion.

Both excitation and ionization are absorption phenomena.

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 Atomic Structure

There are two properties of subatomic particles that are especially

important:
1. Mass
2. Electrical charge

Particle Mass Charge

proton 1 +1
neutron 1 0
electron almost 0 -1

The atoms of an element contain equal numbers of protons and

electrons and so have no overall charge.
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 Atomic Structure

The number of protons in an atom is

known as its atomic number
or proton number.

It is the smaller of the two numbers shown

in most periodic tables.

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 Atomic Structure

What are the atomic numbers of these elements?

sodium iron tin fluorine

11 26 50 9

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 Atomic Structure

Electrons have a mass of almost zero, which means that the mass of each
atom results almost entirely from the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.

The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom’s

nucleus is the mass number. It is the larger of the
two numbers shown in most periodic tables.

Atom Protons Neutrons Mass number

hydrogen 1 0 1
lithium 3 4 7
aluminium 13 14 27
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 Atomic Structure

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

What is the mass number of these atoms?

Atom Protons Neutrons Mass number

helium 2 2 4
copper 29 35 64
cobalt 27 32 59
iodine 53 74 127
germanium 32 41 73

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 Atomic Structure

Atoms have no overall electrical charge and are neutral. This means
atoms must have an equal number of protons and electrons.
The number of electrons is therefore the same as the atomic number.

Atom Protons Neutrons Electrons

helium 2 2 2
copper 29 35 29
iodine 53 74 53

Atomic number is defined as the number of protons rather than the

number of electrons because atoms can lose or gain electrons but do
not normally lose or gain protons.
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 Atomic Structure
Electrons are not evenly spread but exist in layers called shells.
The arrangement of electrons in these shells is often called the
electron configuration.

1st shell

2nd shell

3rd shell

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 Atomic Structure
Each shell has a maximum number of electrons that it can hold.
Electrons will fill the shells nearest the nucleus first. 𝑵𝒆 = 𝟐𝒏𝟐
1st shell holds
a maximum of
2 electrons.

2nd shell holds

a maximum of
8 electrons.

3rd shell holds

a maximum of
18 electrons.

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 Atomic Structure

The Nucleus is:

Dense – it contains nearly all the mass of the atom in a tiny space.
Made up of protons and neutrons.
Positively charged because of the protons.

The Electrons are:

Thinly spread around the outside of the atom.
Very small and light.
Negatively charged.
Found orbiting the nucleus in layers called shells.
Able to be lost or gained in chemical reactions.
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 Matter Classification

Classification of matter on the basis of semiconductor theory:

In terms of electrical properties materials can be classified into

three categories/ groups:
Conductors
Insulators
Semiconductors
All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms contribute to the
electrical properties of the material, Including its ability to conduct
electrical current.

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 Matter Classification

Classification of matter on the basis of semiconductor theory:

An atom can be represented by a valence shell and a core that

consists of all inner shells and the nucleus. The concept is
illustrated for carbon atom:

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 Matter Classification

Classification of matter on the basis of semiconductor theory:

Conductors:
Easily conduct electricity
Best conductors are single element materials, such as copper,
silver, gold and aluminum (atoms with one valence electron).
Loosely bound valence electrons can easily breakaway and
become free electrons.
Conductive materials have many free electrons, when moving in
the same direction make up the current.

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 Matter Classification

Classification of matter on the basis of semiconductor theory:

Insulators:
Does not conduct electricity under normal conditions.
Most good insulators are compound rather than single element
materials.
Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
Very few free electrons.
Good examples are wood, glass and diamond.

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 Matter Classification

Classification of matter on the basis of semiconductor theory:

Semiconductors:
A material between conductors and insulators in its ability to
conduct electrical current.
In its pure form neither a good conductor nor good insulator.
Most common single element semiconductors are silicon,
germanium, and carbo characterized by FOUR valence electrons.
Compound semiconductor gallium arsenide is commonly used.
Pure semiconductors: Intrinsic semiconductors
Impure semiconductors: Extrinsic semiconductors
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 Matter Classification
Periodic Table:

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 Matter Classification
Energy Bands And Energy Band Theory:
The band formed by energy levels in the valence electrons is known as the
valence band.
When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can leave the
valence shell, becomes the free electron and exist in what is known as the
conduction band.
In Conduction band electrons can move freely and is not tied to any given
atom.
Conduction band is empty in case of insulators and partially filled in most
of the cases.
The difference of energy in valence band and the conduction band is called
an energy gap. This energy gap is known as forbidden energy gap.
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 Matter Classification
Energy Bands And Energy Band Theory:

In germanium energy gap

is of the order 0.7ev and At 0K semiconductor
for silicon of order 1.1ev behave as insulator.

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 Matter Classification
Atomic Structure of Silicon and Germanium:

As germanium valence electrons are at higher energy levels than of silicon thus
require a small amount of additional energy to escape from atom. This property
makes germanium more unstable at high temperature. And this is the basic
reason why silicon is most widely used.
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 Matter Classification
Covalent Bond:

Solid materials are formed because the bonding between atoms forms a rigid
structure. When atoms bond in solids, they form a covalent bond, which means
that one or more electrons on a given atom are shared with neighboring atoms.

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 Q?
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