AP Biology

Lab Review

AP Biology
 Big Idea 1: Evolution

AP Biology
 Lab 1: Artificial Selection
 Concepts:
 Natural selection = differential reproduction
in a population
 Populations change over time  evolution

 Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

AP Biology
 Lab 1: Artificial Selection
 Description:
 Use Wisconsin Fast Plants to perform
artificial selection
 Identify traits and variations in traits

 Cross-pollinate (top 10%) for selected trait

 Collect data for 2 generations (P and F1)

AP Biology
 Sample Histogram of a Population

AP Biology
 Lab 1: Artificial Selection
Analysis & Results:
 Calculate mean, median, standard deviation,
range
 Are the 2 populations before and after selection
(P and F1) actually different?
 Are the 2 sub-populations of F1 (hairy vs. non-
hairy) different?
 Are the means statistically different?
 A T-test could be used to determine if 2 sets of
data are statistically different from each other
AP Biology
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg
 Concepts:
 Evolution = change in frequency of alleles
in a population from generation to
generation
 Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
 Allele Frequencies (p + q = 1)
 Genotypic Frequencies (p2+2pq+q2 = 1)
 Conditions:
1. large population
2. random mating
3. no mutations
4. no natural selection
AP Biology 5. no migration
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg
 Description:
 Generate mathematical models and
computer simulations to see how a
hypothetical gene pool changes from one
generation to the next
 Use Microsoft Excel spreadsheet

 p = frequency of A allele
 q = frequency of B allele

AP Biology
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg

AP Biology
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg
 Setting up Excel spreadsheet

AP Biology
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg
 Sample Results

AP Biology
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg
Analysis & Results:
 Null model: in the absence of random events
that affect populations, allele frequencies
(p,q) should be the same from generation to
generation (H-W equilibrium)
 Analyze genetic drift and the effect of
selection on a given population
 Manipulate parameters in model:
 Population size, selection (fitness),
mutation, migration, genetic drift
AP Biology
 Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg
 Real-life applications:
 Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly
 Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell

Anemia)

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
 Concepts:
 Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math
modeling, computer science to analyze
biological data
 Genomes can be compared to detect genetic

similarities and differences

 BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool

 Input gene sequence of interest

 Search genomic libraries for identical or
similar sequences

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
 Description:
 Use BLAST to compare several genes
 Use information to construct a cladogram
(phylogenetic tree)
 Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary
relatedness of species

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
 Use this data to construct a cladogram
of the major plant groups

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
 Fossil specimen in China
 DNA was extracted from preserved tissue
 Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
 Analysis & Results:
 BLAST results: the higher the score, the
closer the alignment
 The more similar the genes, the more
recent their common ancestor  located
closer on the cladogram

AP Biology
 Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using
BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

AP Biology
 Big Idea 2: cellular processes:
energy and communication

AP Biology
 Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis
 Concepts:
 Selectively permeable membrane
 Diffusion (high  low concentration)

 Osmosis (aquaporins)

 Water potential ()

  = pressure potential (P) + solute potential (S)

 Solutions:
 Hypertonic
 hypotonic
 isotonic

AP Biology
 Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

AP Biology
 Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis
 Description:
 Surface area and cell size vs. rate of
diffusion
 Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various

solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt,

glucose, protein)
 Identify concentrations of sucrose solution

and solute concentration of potato cores

 Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of
salt water)
AP Biology
 Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

AP Biology
 Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of
Sucrose

AP Biology
 Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis
 Conclusions
 Water moves from high water potential ( )
(hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential
() (hypertonic=high solute)
 Solute concentration & size of molecule
affect movement across selectively
permeable membrane

AP Biology
AP Biology
 Lab 5: Photosynthesis
 Concepts:
 Photosynthesis
 6H2O + 6CO2 + Light  C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis:

 Production of oxygen (O2)

 Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO2)

AP Biology
 Lab 5: Photosynthesis
 Description:
 Paper chromatography to identify pigments
 Floating disk technique

 Leaf disks float in water

 Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using
syringe  leaf sinks
 Photosynthesis  O2 produced  bubbles form
on leaf  leaf disk rises
 Measure rate of photosynthesis by O2 production

 Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors

of leaves, pH of solutions
AP Biology
 Plant Pigments & Chromatography

AP Biology
Floating Disk Technique
 Lab 5: Photosynthesis
 Concepts:
 photosynthesis
 Photosystems II, I
 H2O split, ATP, NADPH
 chlorophylls & other
plant pigments
 chlorophyll a
 chlorophyll b
 xanthophylls
 carotenoids
 experimental design
 control vs. experimental
AP Biology
AP Biology
 Lab 6: Cellular Respiration
 Concepts:
 Respiration
 Measure rate of respiration by:

 O2 consumption
 CO2 production

AP Biology
 Lab 6: Cellular Respiration
 Description:
 Use respirometer
 Measure rate of respiration (O2 consumption)
in various seeds
 Factors tested:

 Non-germinating seeds
 Germinating seeds
 Effect of temperature
 Surface area of seeds
 Types of seeds
 Plants vs. animals
AP Biology
AP Biology
 Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

AP Biology
 Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

AP Biology
 Lab 6: Cellular Respiration
 Conclusions:
 temp = respiration
 germination = respiration

 Animal respiration > plant respiration

  surface area =  respiration

Calculate Rate

AP Biology
 Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
 Big Idea 3: genetics and
information transfer

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis
 Concepts:
 Cell Cycle (G1  S  G2  M)
 Control of cell cycle (checkpoints)

 Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

 Mitosis vs. Meiosis
 Crossing over  genetic diversity

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis
 Description:
 Model mitosis & meiosis (pipecleaners, beads)
 How environment affects mitosis of plant roots

 Lectin - proteins secreted by fungus

 Root stimulating powder
 Count # cells in interphase, mitosis
 Observe karyotypes (cancer, mutations)
 Meiosis & crossing over in Sordaria (fungus)

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

AP Biology
 Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

AP Biology
 Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

AP Biology
 Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis
 Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria)
 Arrangement of ascospores

AP Biology
 Sordaria Analysis
total crossover
% crossover =
total offspring

distance from % crossover

=
centromere 2

AP Biology
 Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation
Concepts:
 Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from
surroundings
 Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes
 Replicates separately from bacteria DNA

 Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance

 Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO

plasmid

AP Biology
 Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

AP Biology
 Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

AP Biology
 Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation
 Conclusions:
 Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid)
 Ampicillin = Selecting agent
 No transformation = no growth on amp+ plate
 Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
 Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

 Concepts:
 Restriction Enzymes
 Cut DNA at specific locations
 Gel Electrophoresis

 DNA is negatively charged

 Smaller fragments travel faster

AP Biology
 Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

 Description

AP Biology
 Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

 Determine DNA fragment sizes

AP Biology
 Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA

 Conclusions:
 Restriction enzymes cut at specific
locations (restriction sites)
 DNA is negatively charged

 Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than

larger fragments
 Relative size of DNA fragments can be

determined by distance travelled

 Use standard curve to calculate size

AP Biology
 Big Idea 4: interactions

AP Biology
 Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
 Concepts:
 Energy from sunlight  drives photosynthesis
(store E in organic compounds)
 Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured

 But some energy is used for respiration (R)

 Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R
 Energy flows! (but matter cycles)

 Producers  consumers
 Biomass = mass of dry weight

AP Biology
 Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Numbers

AP Biology
 Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
 Description:
 Brassica (cabbage)  cabbage white
butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

AP Biology
Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
 Measuring Biomass:
 Cabbage  mass lost
 Caterpillar  mass gained

 Caterpillar frass (poop)  dry mass

 Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
 Conclusions:

AP Biology
 Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
 Conclusions:
 Energy is lost (respiration, waste)
 Conservation of Mass

 Input = Output

AP Biology
AP Biology
 Lab 11: Transpiration

 Concepts:
 Transpiration
 Xylem
 Water potential
 Cohesion-tension hypothesis
 Stomata & Guard cells

 Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of

transpiration

AP Biology
 Lab 11: Transpiration

AP Biology
 Lab 11: Transpiration
 Description:
 Determine relationship between leaf surface
area, # stomata, rate of transpiration
 Nail polish  stomatal peels
 Effects of environmental factors on rate of
transpiration
 Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind), light
intensity

AP Biology
 Analysis of Stomata

AP Biology
 Rates of Transpiration

AP Biology
 Lab 11: Transpiration
 Conclusions:
 transpiration:  wind,  light
 transpiration:  humidity

 Density of stomata vs. transpiration

 Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
AP Biology
 Lab 12: Animal Behavior
 Concepts:
 Experimental design
 IV, DV, control, constants
 Control vs. Experimental
 Hypothesis
 innate vs. learned behavior
 choice chambers
 temperature
 humidity
 light intensity
 salinity
 other factors
AP Biology
 Lab 12: Animal Behavior
 Description:
 Investigate relationship between
environmental factors vs. behavior
 Betta fish agonistic behavior
 Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior
 Pillbug kinesis

AP Biology
 Lab 12: Animal Behavior

AP Biology
 Lab 12: Animal Behavior
 Hypothesis Development
 Poor:
I think pillbugs will move toward the wet
side of a choice chamber.
 Better:
If pillbugs are randomly placed on two
sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and
allowed to move about freely for
10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be
found on the wet side because they
prefer moist environments.
AP Biology
 Lab 12: Animal Behavior
 Experimental Design sample size

AP Biology
 Lab 12: Animal Behavior
 Data Analysis:
 Chi-Square Test
 Null hypothesis: there is no difference
between the conditions
 Degrees of Freedom = n-1

 At p=0.05, if X2 < critical value  accept null

hypothesis (any differences between observed
and expected due to CHANCE)

AP Biology
 Lab 13: Enzyme Activity
 Concepts:
 Enzyme
 Structure (active site, allosteric site)
 Lower activation energy
 Substrate  product
 Proteins denature (structure/binding site
changes)

AP Biology
 Lab 13: Enzyme Activity
 Description:
 Determine which factors affecting rate of
enzyme reaction
 H2O2  H2O + O2
catalase

 Measure rate of O2 production

AP Biology
 Turnip peroxidase  Color change (O2 produced)

AP Biology
 Lab 13: Enzyme Activity
 Conclusions:
 Enzyme reaction rate affected by:
 pH (acids, bases)
 Temperature
 Substrate concentration
 Enzyme concentration

Calculate Rate of Reaction

AP Biology
AP Biology
 Any Questions??

AP Biology