William Stallings

Data and Computer

Communications
7th Edition

Chapter 5
Signal Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
1. Digital data, digital signal
— Two voltage pulses for binary 1 and 0
2. Digital data, analog signal
— Modulation techniques
• (Amplitude, Frequency, Phase) Shift Keying Modulation
3. Analog data, analog signal
— Modulation techniques
• (Amplitude, Frequency, Phase) Modulation
4. Analog data, digital signal
— Pulse Code modulation (PCM)
— Delta Modulation (DM)
1. Digital Data, Digital Signal
• Digital signal
—Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
—Each pulse is a signal element
—Binary data encoded into signal elements
Terms (1)
1. Unipolar
— Unipolar signal where all signal elements have same sign (i.e..,
either +ve or –ve)
2. Polar
— One logic state represented by +ve voltage level where the
other represented by -ve voltage level
3. Data rate (if we represent by R)
— Rate of data transmission in bits per second
4. Duration of a bit
— Time required by the transmitter to transmit the bit
Bit Duration = 1 / R
5. Modulation rate
— Is the Rate at which the signal level changes (i.e.., the signal
elements per second and it is measured in baud)
Important Facts
1. Data Rate ∝BER
2. SNR ∝ 1/BER
3. Bandwidth ∝ Date Rate.
4. Signal Processing Gain is given as:
SNR
Signal Processing Gain is the raio  processed signal
SNR
Unprocessed signal
• Problem:
— Derive the Mathematical Relationship between
the BER and the Signal Processing Gain using
point 1 to 4. Provide complete justification of
your answer.
Encoding Schemes
1. Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
2. Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
3. Multilevel (Bipolar –AMI)
4. Manchester
5. Differential Manchester
6. B8ZS
7. HDB3
1. Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
• Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits

• Voltage constant during bit interval

—No transition to 0V

• For Example:
—Negative Voltage (-5V) use to represent binary 1 and
Positive Voltage (+5v) use to represent binary 0
2. Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
• Nonreturn to zero and inverted on 1

• Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit

• Transition denotes a binary 1

• No transition denotes binary 0

• An example of differential encoding

 NRZ

+ve
0v
-ve

Invert on ‘1’

+ve
0v
-ve

NRZ-L
Differential Encoding
• Follow a single rule of encoding:

1. If current bit is ‘0’, then encoding of the

current bit uses same signal as used for the
previous bit.
2. If current bit is ‘1’, then encoding of the
current bit uses opposite signal as used for
the previous bit.

• Easy & reliable to detect a transition than

comparing threshold
NRZ pros and cons
• Pros
—Easy to engineer
—Make good use of bandwidth

• Cons
—String of 0’s or 1’s leads a constant voltage over a
period of time
—Loss of synchronization between transmitter &
receiver
—The final result will be No detection at receiver
 Multilevel Binary
• Use more than two levels
• Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
—Binary ‘0’ represented by no line signal (i.e., 0 volts)
—Binary ‘1’ represented by positive or negative voltages
—Pulses alternate in polarity (i.e., either +ve or –ve)
—No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a
problem)

One Voltage Level

Another
Voltage Level
 Biphase
1. Manchester
— Transition in middle of each bit period
— Mid-Bit transition serves for clocking and data
— Rule
• Low to high represents binary ‘1’
• High to low represents binary ‘0’

2. Differential Manchester
— Use differential encoding scheme
— Mid-Bit transition serves only for clocking
— Rule
• If there is a ‘0’, there will be a transition (start of a bit period)
• If there is a ‘1’, there will be no transition (start of a bit period)
Manchester Encoding
For ‘O’ Go “High to Low”
For ‘1’ Go “Low to High”
1 bit period  Must be a Transition

High

H H H H H H H H H H

L L L L L L L L L L

Low
Differential Manchester
Encoding
0, there will be a T (@ start of a bit period)
1, there will be NT (@ start of a bit period)

T NT NT T T

NT T T NT T
 Modulation Rate

R = 1/Tb
Tb = Bit duration

NRZ-I 1 sample per

duration of a bit

Manchester 2 samples
per duration of a bit
 Scrambling
• Use special pattern to replace sequences that
would produce constant voltage

• B8ZS (bipolar 8 zeros substitution)

—Example of scrambling technique
—Encoding Rules
• If 8 zeros occur and the last voltage pulse preceding was
positive encode as 000+-0-+
• If 8 zeros occur and the last voltage pulse preceding was
negative encode as 000-+0+-
—Solve the problem of bipolar AMI code where sequence
of zero was problem.
—Used in North America
B8ZS and HDB3

If 8 zeros occur and the last voltage pulse preceding was

negative encode as 000-+0+- where V = -ve and B= +ve
 2. Digital Data  Analog Signal
• Public telephone system
— Frequency range of 300Hz to 3400Hz for Telephone
Network
— Modem produces signals in the desired range
— Modulation techniques are required to perform
transformation such as
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PK)
— Each technique uses one of the characteristic of signal
components.
 Modulation Techniques

fc

f10 f2 1

(f1 > f2) or (f2 > f1) or

(f1 = f2)
1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Values represented by different amplitudes of
modulated signal
• Usually, presence of carrier represent ‘1’ and the
absence of carrier represents ‘0’
• Provide On/Off keying mechanism
• Usually use with the fiber optics

• Problems
—Susceptible to sudden gain changes
—Inefficient
2. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Two binary values represented by two different
frequencies (near carrier)
• Advantages
—Less susceptible to error than ASK
—Can be used with the higher frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
• Even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax
 3. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• The ‘Phase’ of modulated signal is shifted to represent data
(i.e.., 0 and 1)

1. Binary PSK (BPSK)

— Two phase angles represent two binary digits
— For example:
• phase = 0 degree  transmit 1
• phase = 180 degree  transmit 0

— Receiver has the knowledge of phase angles the transmitter is using

2. Differential PSK (DPSK)

— We either ‘Shift the phase’ or “keep the same phase” of the previous
bit with respect to the current bit
— Rule:
• If current input bit is ‘1’, we shift the phase
• If current input bit is ‘0’, we keep the same phase
 Differential PSK (DPSK)

Change of phase for ‘1’

Bit period

Keeping the same phase as used

for the previous bit for ‘0’
Quadrature PSK (QPSK or 4PSK)
• More efficient use by each signal element
representing more than one bit
• Features:
—Shifts of /2 (90o)

—Each element represents two bits

—Can use 8 phase angles to send three bits

—Double the data rate compared to a BPSK system

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
• Combination of ASK and PSK
• Logical extension of QPSK
• Send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
—Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
—Each carrier is ASK modulated
—Two independent signals over same medium
—Demodulate and combine for original binary output
 QAM Modulator
ASK modulation is
performed using the
copy of fc

Even

Odd

Separating even
bits with odds
(i.e.., alternate bits 2 signals are added
Generating & transmitted using
carrier frequency Phase shift by 90 the same fc
3. Analog Data, Digital Signal
• Digitization
— Conversion of analog data into digital data

— Pulse code modulation (PCM)

• PCM Does digitization
— PCM digitization includes:
• Sampling
– Sampling Theorem
• Quantization
– Quantization level
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (1)
• PCM Sampling
—(Proof - Stallings appendix 4A)
• If bandwidth is H, then 2H samples are required
• Resulting samples are known as
—Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation, PAM)
• Example:
—If H = 4000 Hz, then 8000 samples/sec
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) (2)
• PCM Quantization
— Assign a binary code to each of 2H samples
— Need to determine quantization level
— Quantization level is determined on the use of
bits/samples
— Bits/samples is a deign parameter unlike sampling rate
— Quantization Levels = (2) ^ (# of bits per samples)

• Data Rate = (samples per second) * (bits per sample)

• Example
— 8 bit per sample  256 quantization levels
• Problem:
— Higher computational complexity
— Quantization error due to linear spacing
Delta Modulation
• Consists of 2 steps:
— Segmentation
— Compression
1. Segmentation
— Original Signal is approximated using the staircase function
— Approximated signal has one or more segments
— Staircase function goes up and down w.r.t quantization level
2. Compression
— Each segment is compared with the original signal
— Increase/decrease is determined to produce final output
— Output signal has 2 discrete levels that need 1 bit for
representation
 Delta Modulation - example

Segment of the
approximated
signal

Relative
amplitude is
increasing  1
4. Analog Data, Analog Signals
• Digital data can’t be sent without modulation
• Why modulate analog signals? Why not a base-
band signal
—Frequency of base-band signal is quite low
—Attenuation is function of distance
—Need to uplift the frequency of modulating signal
• Types of modulation
—Amplitude
—Frequency
—Phase
 Required Reading
• Stallings chapter 5
• Review examples 5.1 to 5.5

• HW#3: (Due Date: Thursday October 05)

— Derive the Mathematical Relationship between the BER and the Signal Processing Gain.

• OpNet Lab#2: (Due Date: Thursday October 05)

— You can work in group (at most 2 students)
— Need to submit one report per group

• HW#4 (Due Date: Tuesday October 10)

—Problems: 5.6, 5.8, 5.9, 5.14, 5.17, 5.19