Digital Logic (Review)

Overview
• Binary logic and Gates
• Boolean Algebra
– Basic Properties
– Algebraic Manipulation
• Standard and Canonical Forms
– Minterms and Maxterms (Canonical forms)
– SOP and POS (Standard forms)
• Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps)
– 2, 3, 4, and 5 variable maps
– Simplification using K-Maps
• K-Map Manipulation
– Implicants: Prime, Essential
– Don’t Cares
• More Logic Gates

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Binary Logic
• Deals with binary variables that take 2 discrete
values (0 and 1), and with logic operations
• Three basic logic operations:
– AND, OR, NOT
• Binary/logic variables are typically
represented as letters: A,B,C,…,X,Y,Z

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Binary Logic Function
F(vars) = expression

Operators ( +, •, ‘ )
Variables
set of binary
Constants ( 0, 1 )
variables
Groupings (parenthesis)

Example: F(a,b) = a’•b + b’

G(x,y,z) = x•(y+z’)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Basic Logic Operators
• AND
Binary
• OR
Unary
• NOT

• F(a,b) = a•b, F is 1 if and only if a=b=1

• G(a,b) = a+b, G is 1 if either a=1 or b=1
• H(a) = a’, H is 1 if a=0

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Basic Logic Operators (cont.)
• 1-bit logic AND resembles binary
multiplication:
0 • 0 = 0, 0 • 1 = 0,
1 • 0 = 0, 1•1 =1
• 1-bit logic OR resembles binary addition,
except for one operation:
0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1,
1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 1 (≠ 102)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Truth Tables for logic operators
Truth table: tabular form that uniguely represents the relationship
between the input variables of a function and its output

2-Input AND 2-Input OR

A B F=A•B A B F=A+B
0 0 0 0 0 0 NOT
0 1 0 0 1 1 A F=A’
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Truth Tables (cont.)
• Q: Let a function F() depend on n variables.
How many rows are there in the truth table of
F() ?
n n
 A: 2 rows, since there are 2 possible
binary patterns/combinations for the n
variables

Boolean Algebra
 Logic Gates
• Logic gates are abstractions of electronic circuit
components that operate on one or more input
signals to produce an output signal.

2-Input AND 2-Input OR NOT (Inverter)

A A
F G A H
B B

F = A•B G = A+B H = A’

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Timing Diagram
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
1
Input A 0
1 Transitions
signals B 0

1
F=A•B 0 Basic
Gate
Assumption:
Output G=A+B 1
0 Zero time for
Signals
1 signals to
H=A’ 0 propagate
Through gates

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Combinational Logic Circuit
from Logic Function
• Consider function F = A’ + B•C’ + A’•B’
• A combinational logic circuit can be constructed to implement F, by
appropriately connecting input signals and logic gates:
– Circuit input signals  from function variables (A, B, C)
– Circuit output signal  function output (F)
– Logic gates  from logic operations

A F

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Combinational Logic Circuit
from Logic Function (cont.)
• In order to design a cost-effective A B C F G
and efficient circuit, we must
0 0 0 1 1
minimize the circuit’s size (area) and
propagation delay (time required for 0 0 1 1 1
an input signal change to be 0 1 0 1 1
observed at the output line) 0 1 1 1 1
• Observe the truth table of F=A’ + B•C’ 1 0 0 0 0
+ A’•B’ and G=A’ + B•C’ 1 0 1 0 0
• Truth tables for F and G are identical 1 1 0 1 1
 same function
1 1 1 0 0
• Use G to implement the logic circuit
(less components)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Combinational Logic Circuit
from Logic Function (cont.)
C

A F

C
B
A G

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Boolean Algebra
• VERY nice machinery used to manipulate
(simplify) Boolean functions
• George Boole (1815-1864): “An investigation
of the laws of thought”
• Terminology:
– Literal: A variable or its complement
– Product term: literals connected by •
– Sum term: literals connected by +

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Boolean Algebra Properties
Let X: boolean variable, 0,1: constants

1. X + 0 = X -- Zero Axiom
2. X • 1 = X -- Unit Axiom
3. X + 1 = 1 -- Unit Property
4. X • 0 = 0 -- Zero Property

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Boolean Algebra Properties (cont.)
Let X: boolean variable, 0,1: constants

5. X + X = X -- Idepotence
6. X • X = X -- Idepotence
7. X + X’ = 1 -- Complement
8. X • X’ = 0 -- Complement
9. (X’)’ = X -- Involution

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Duality
• The dual of an expression is obtained by exchanging
(• and +), and (1 and 0) in it, provided that the
precedence of operations is not changed.
• Cannot exchange x with x’
• Example:
– Find H(x,y,z), the dual of F(x,y,z) = x’yz’ + x’y’z
– H = (x’+y+z’) (x’+y’+ z)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Duality (cont’d)
With respect to duality, Identities 1 – 8
have the following relationship:

1. X+0=X 2. X•1 =X (dual of 1)

3. X+1 =1 4. X•0 =0 (dual of 3)
5. X+X=X 6. X • X = X (dual of 5)
7. X + X’ = 1 8. X • X’ = 0 (dual of 8)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 More Boolean Algebra Properties
Let X,Y, and Z: boolean variables
10. X+Y=Y+X 11. X •Y=Y•X -- Commutative
12. X + (Y+Z) = (X+Y) + Z 13. X•(Y•Z) = (X•Y)•Z -- Associative
14. X•(Y+Z) = X•Y + X•Z 15. X+(Y•Z) = (X+Y) • (X+Z)
-- Distributive
16. (X + Y)’ = X’ • Y’ 17. (X • Y)’ = X’ + Y’ -- DeMorgan’s
In general,
( X1 + X2 + … + Xn )’ = X1’•X2’ • … •Xn’, and
( X1•X2•… •Xn )’ = X1’ + X2’ + … + Xn’

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Absorption Property
1. x + x•y = x
2. x•(x+y) = x (dual)
• Proof:
x + x•y = x•1 + x•y
= x•(1+y)
= x•1
=x
QED (2 true by duality, why?)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Power of Duality
1. x + x•y = x is true, so (x + x•y)’=x’
2. (x + x•y)’=x’•(x’+y’)
3. x’•(x’+y’) =x’
4. Let X=x’, Y=y’
5. X•(X+Y) =X, which is the dual of x + x•y = x.
6. The above process can be applied to any formula. So
if a formula is valid, then its dual must also be valid.
7. Proving one formula also proves its dual.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Consensus Theorem
1.xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z
2.(x+y)•(x’+z)•(y+z) = (x+y)•(x’+z) -- (dual)
• Proof:
xy + x’z + yz = xy + x’z + (x+x’)yz
= xy + x’z + xyz + x’yz
= (xy + xyz) + (x’z + x’zy)
= xy + x’z
QED (2 true by duality).

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Truth Tables (revisited)
• Enumerates all possible x y z F1 F2 F3
combinations of variable values 0 0 0 0 1 1
and the corresponding function 0 0 1 0 0 1
value 0 1 0 0 0 1
• Truth tables for some arbitrary 0 1 1 0 1 1
functions
F1(x,y,z), F2(x,y,z), and F3(x,y,z) are 1 0 0 0 1 0
shown to the right. 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
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 Truth Tables (cont.)
• Truth table: a unique representation of a Boolean
function
• If two functions have identical truth tables, the
functions are equivalent (and vice-versa).
• Truth tables can be used to prove equality theorems.
• However, the size of a truth table grows
exponentially with the number of variables involved,
hence unwieldy. This motivates the use of Boolean
Algebra.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Boolean expressions-NOT unique
• Unlike truth tables, expressions x y z F G
representing a Boolean function are NOT 0 0 0 1 1
unique.
0 0 1 0 0
• Example:
– F(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + x’•y•z’ + x•y•z’ 0 1 0 1 1
– G(x,y,z) = x’•y’•z’ + y•z’ 0 1 1 0 0
• The corresponding truth tables for F() and 1 0 0 0 0
G() are to the right. They are identical.
• Thus, F() = G() 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0
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 Algebraic Manipulation
• Boolean algebra is a useful tool for simplifying
digital circuits.
• Why do it? Simpler can mean cheaper, smaller,
faster.
• Example: Simplify F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz.
F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz
= x’y(z+z’) + xz
= x’y•1 + xz
= x’y + xz

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Algebraic Manipulation (cont.)
• Example: Prove
x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + xyz’ = x’z’ + yz’
• Proof:
x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ xyz’
= x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + x’yz’ + xyz’
= x’z’(y’+y) + yz’(x’+x)
= x’z’•1 + yz’•1
= x’z’ + yz’
QED.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Complement of a Function
• The complement of a function is derived by
interchanging (• and +), and (1 and 0), and
complementing each variable.
• Otherwise, interchange 1s to 0s in the truth
table column showing F.
• The complement of a function IS NOT THE
SAME as the dual of a function.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Complementation: Example
• Find G(x,y,z), the complement of
F(x,y,z) = xy’z’ + x’yz
• G = F’ = (xy’z’ + x’yz)’
= (xy’z’)’ • (x’yz)’ DeMorgan
= (x’+y+z) • (x+y’+z’) DeMorgan again
• Note: The complement of a function can also be
derived by finding the function’s dual, and then
complementing all of the literals
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 Canonical and Standard Forms
• We need to consider formal techniques for the
simplification of Boolean functions.
– Identical functions will have exactly the same
canonical form.
– Minterms and Maxterms
– Sum-of-Minterms and Product-of- Maxterms
– Product and Sum terms
– Sum-of-Products (SOP) and Product-of-Sums (POS)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Definitions
• Literal: A variable or its complement
• Product term: literals connected by •
• Sum term: literals connected by +
• Minterm: a product term in which all the variables
appear exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented
• Maxterm: a sum term in which all the variables
appear exactly once, either complemented or
uncomplemented

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Minterm
• Represents exactly one combination in the truth table.
• Denoted by mj, where j is the decimal equivalent of
the minterm’s corresponding binary combination (bj).
• A variable in mj is complemented if its value in bj is 0,
otherwise is uncomplemented.
• Example: Assume 3 variables (A,B,C), and j=3. Then, bj
= 011 and its corresponding minterm is denoted by mj
= A’BC

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Maxterm
• Represents exactly one combination in the truth table.
• Denoted by Mj, where j is the decimal equivalent of
the maxterm’s corresponding binary combination (bj).
• A variable in Mj is complemented if its value in bj is 1,
otherwise is uncomplemented.
• Example: Assume 3 variables (A,B,C), and j=3. Then, bj
= 011 and its corresponding maxterm is denoted by
Mj = A+B’+C’

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

Truth Table notation for Minterms and
Maxterms
• Minterms and x y z Minterm Maxterm
Maxterms are easy 0 0 0 x’y’z’ = m0 x+y+z = M0
to denote using a 0 0 1 x’y’z = m1 x+y+z’ = M1
truth table. 0 1 0 x’yz’ = m2 x+y’+z = M2
• Example: 0 1 1 x’yz = m3 x+y’+z’= M3
Assume 3 variables1 0 0 xy’z’ = m4 x’+y+z = M4
x,y,z 1 0 1 xy’z = m5 x’+y+z’ = M5
(order is fixed) 1 1 0 xyz’ = m6 x’+y’+z = M6
1 1 1 xyz = m7 x’+y’+z’ = M7

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Canonical Forms (Unique)
• Any Boolean function F( ) can be expressed as a
unique sum of minterms and a unique product
of maxterms (under a fixed variable ordering).
• In other words, every function F() has two
canonical forms:
– Canonical Sum-Of-Products (sum of minterms)
– Canonical Product-Of-Sums (product of
maxterms)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Canonical Forms (cont.)
• Canonical Sum-Of-Products:
The minterms included are those mj such that
F( ) = 1 in row j of the truth table for F( ).
• Canonical Product-Of-Sums:
The maxterms included are those Mj such that
F( ) = 0 in row j of the truth table for F( ).

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Example
• Truth table for f1(a,b,c) at right
ab c f1
• The canonical sum-of-products form for f1
is 00 0 0
f1(a,b,c) = m1 + m2 + m4 + m6 00 1 1
= a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
• The canonical product-of-sums form for f1 is
01 0 1
f1(a,b,c) = M0 • M3 • M5 • M7 01 1 0
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)• 10 0 1
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’).
• Observe that: mj = Mj’ 10 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
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 Shorthand: ∑ and ∏
• f1(a,b,c) = ∑ m(1,2,4,6), where ∑ indicates that this is
a sum-of-products form, and m(1,2,4,6) indicates
that the minterms to be included are m1, m2, m4, and
m6.
• f1(a,b,c) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7), where ∏ indicates that this
is a product-of-sums form, and M(0,3,5,7) indicates
that the maxterms to be included are M0, M3, M5,
and M7.
• Since mj = Mj’ for any j,
∑ m(1,2,4,6) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7) = f1(a,b,c)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Conversion Between Canonical Forms

• Replace ∑ with ∏ (or vice versa) and replace those j’s that
appeared in the original form with those that do not.
• Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + a’bc’ + ab’c’ + abc’
= m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= ∑(1,2,4,6)
= ∏(0,3,5,7)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)

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 Standard Forms (NOT Unique)
• Standard forms are “like” canonical forms,
except that not all variables need appear in
the individual product (SOP) or sum (POS)
terms.
• Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + bc’ + ac’
is a standard sum-of-products form
• f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b’+c’)•(a’+c’)
is a standard product-of-sums form.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Conversion of SOP from standard to
canonical form
• Expand non-canonical terms by inserting
equivalent of 1 in each missing variable x:
(x + x’) = 1
• Remove duplicate minterms
• f1(a,b,c) = a’b’c + bc’ + ac’
= a’b’c + (a+a’)bc’ + a(b+b’)c’
= a’b’c + abc’ + a’bc’ + abc’ + ab’c’
= a’b’c + abc’ + a’bc + ab’c’

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Conversion of POS from standard to
canonical form
• Expand noncanonical terms by adding 0 in terms of
missing variables (e.g., xx’ = 0) and using the
distributive law
• Remove duplicate maxterms
• f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b’+c’)•(a’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(aa’+b’+c’)•(a’+bb’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)•
(a’+b+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b’+c’)•(a’+b’+c’)•(a’+b+c’)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Karnaugh Maps
• Karnaugh maps (K-maps) are graphical
representations of boolean functions.
• One map cell corresponds to a row in the
truth table.
• Also, one map cell corresponds to a minterm
or a maxterm in the boolean expression
• Multiple-cell areas of the map correspond to
standard terms.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Two-Variable Map
x2 x1
x1 0 1 x2 0 1
0 1 0 2
0 m0 m1
OR 0 m0 m2
2 3 1 3
1 m2 m3 1 m1 m3

NOTE: ordering of variables is IMPORTANT

for f(x1,x2), x1 is the row, x2 is the column.
Cell 0 represents x1’x2’; Cell 1 represents
x1’x2; etc. If a minterm is present in the
function, then a 1 is placed in the
corresponding cell.
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 Two-Variable Map (cont.)
• Any two adjacent cells in the map differ by
ONLY one variable, which appears
complemented in one cell and
uncomplemented in the other.
• Example:
m0 (=x1’x2’) is adjacent to m1 (=x1’x2) and m2
(=x1x2’) but NOT m3 (=x1x2)

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 2-Variable Map -- Example
• f(x1,x2) = x1’x2’+ x1’x2 + x1x2’
= m0 + m1 + m2
= x1’ + x2’
• 1s placed in K-map for specified x2
minterms m0, m1, m2 x1 0 1
• Grouping (ORing) of 1s allows
0 1
simplification
• What (simpler) function is 0 1 1
represented by each dashed
rectangle? 2 3
– x1’ = m0 + m1
– x2’ = m0 + m2 1 1 0
• Note m0 covered twice

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Minimization as SOP using K-map
• Enter 1s in the K-map for each product term in
the function
• Group adjacent K-map cells containing 1s to
obtain a product with fewer variables. Group
size must be in power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …)
• Handle “boundary wrap” for K-maps of 3 or
more variables.
• Realize that answer may not be unique

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Three-Variable Map
yz
x 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
0 m0 m1 m3 m2
4 5 7 6

1 m4 m5 m7 m6

-Note: variable ordering is (x,y,z); yz specifies

column, x specifies row.
-Each cell is adjacent to three other cells (left or
right or top or bottom or edge wrap)
2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra
 Three-Variable Map (cont.)
minterm

The types of structures

that are either minterms or
are generated by repeated
application of the
minimization theorem on a
three variable map are
shown at right.
Groups of 1, 2, 4, 8 are
possible. group of 2 terms

group of 4 terms
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 Simplification
• Enter minterms of the Boolean function into
the map, then group terms
• Example: f(a,b,c) = a’c + abc + bc’
• Result: f(a,b,c) = a’c+ b
a bc
1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 More Examples
yz
X 00 01 11 10

• f1(x, y, z) = ∑ m(2,3,5,7) 0 1 1
1 1 1
 f1(x, y, z) = x’y + xz

• f2(x, y, z) = ∑ m (0,1,2,3,6)
1 1 1 1
f2(x, y, z) = x’+yz’
1

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Four-Variable Maps
YZ

WX 00 01 11 10

00 m0 m1 m3 m2

01 m4 m5 m7 m6

11 m12 m13 m15 m14

10 m8 m9 m11 m10

• Top cells are adjacent to bottom cells. Left-edge cells

are adjacent to right-edge cells.
• Note variable ordering (WXYZ).

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Four-variable Map Simplification
• One square represents a minterm of 4 literals.
• A rectangle of 2 adjacent squares represents a
product term of 3 literals.
• A rectangle of 4 squares represents a product term
of 2 literals.
• A rectangle of 8 squares represents a product term
of 1 literal.
• A rectangle of 16 squares produces a function that is
equal to logic 1.

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Example
• Simplify the following Boolean function (A,B,C,D) =
∑m(0,1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,12,13).
• First put the function g( ) into the map, and then
group as many 1s as possible.
cd
ab
1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

g(A,B,C,D) = c’+b’d’+a’bd
2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra
 Don't Care Conditions
• There may be a combination of input values which
– will never occur
– if they do occur, the output is of no concern.
• The function value for such combinations is called a don't
care.
• They are denoted with x or –. Each x may be arbitrarily
assigned the value 0 or 1 in an implementation.
• Don’t cares can be used to further simplify a function

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 Minimization using Don’t Cares
• Treat don't cares as if they are 1s to generate
PIs.
• Delete PI's that cover only don't care
minterms.
• Treat the covering of remaining don't care
minterms as optional in the selection process
(i.e. they may be, but need not be, covered).

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 cd
ab 00 01 11 10
Example 00 0 1 0 1
01 1 1 0 1
• Simplify the function f(a,b,c,d) 11 0 0 x x
10 1 1 x x
whose K-map is shown at the
right. 0 1 0 1
• f = a’c’d+ab’+cd’+a’bc’ 1 1 0 1
0 0 x x
or 1 1 x x
• f = a’c’d+ab’+cd’+a’bd’
0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
0 0 x x
1 1 x x
2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra
 cd
Another Example ab
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
• Simplify the function 1 x x 1
g(a,b,c,d) whose K-map is 0 x x 0

shown at right. x 1 0 0
• g = a’c’+ ab 1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
or
0 x x 0
• g = a’c’+b’d
x 1 0 0
1 x 0 x
1 x x 1
0 x x 0
2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra
 Algorithmic minimization
• What do we do for functions with more
variables?
• You can “code up” a minimizer (Computer-
Aided Design, CAD)
– Quine-McCluskey algorithm
– Iterated consensus
• We won’t discuss these techniques here

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra

 More Logic Gates

• NAND and NOR Gates

– NAND and NOR circuits
– Two-level Implementations
– Multilevel Implementations
• Exclusive-OR (XOR) Gates
– Odd Function
– Parity Generation and Checking

2018/2/2 Boolean Algebra - 60

 More Logic Gates
• We can construct any combinational circuit with
AND, OR, and NOT gates

• Additional logic gates are used for practical reasons

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 BUFFER, NAND and NOR

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 NAND Gate

• Known as a “universal” gate because ANY

digital circuit can be implemented with NAND
gates alone.
• To prove the above, it suffices to show that
AND, OR, and NOT can be implemented using
NAND gates only.

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 NAND Gate Emulation

F = (X•X)’ X F = X’
X
= X’+X’
= X’

X X F X•Y
F = ((X•Y)’)’
Y Y
= (X’+Y’)’
= X’’•Y’’
= X•Y
X X
F = (X’•Y’)’ F = X+Y
= X’’+Y’’
Y Y
= X+Y

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 NAND Circuits
• To easily derive a NAND implementation of a
boolean function:
– Find a simplified SOP
– SOP is an AND-OR circuit
– Change AND-OR circuit to a NAND circuit
– Use the alternative symbols below

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 AND-OR (SOP) Emulation
Using NANDs

Two-level implementations

a) Original SOP
b) Implementation with NANDs

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 AND-OR (SOP) Emulation
Using NANDs (cont.)

Verify:
(a) G = WXY + YZ

(b) G = ( (WXY)’ • (YZ)’ )’

= (WXY)’’ + (YZ)’’ = WXY + YZ

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 SOP with NAND

(a) Original SOP

(b) Double inversion and grouping AND-NOT
(c) Replacement with NANDs NOT-OR
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 Two-Level NAND Gate
Implementation - Example
F (X,Y,Z) = m(0,6)
1. Express F in SOP form:
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
2. Obtain the AND-OR implementation for F.
3. Add bubbles and inverters to transform AND-
OR to NAND-NAND gates.

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 Example (cont.)

Two-level implementation with NANDs

F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
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 Multilevel NAND Circuits
Starting from a multilevel circuit:
1. Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-NOT
graphic symbols.
2. Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with NOT-OR
graphic symbols.
3. Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every
bubble that is not counteracted by another bubble
along the same line, insert a NOT gate or
complement the input literal from its original
appearance.

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 Example
Use NAND gates
and NOT gates to
implement
Z=E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH
AB
AB+C’+D’
E’F(AB+C’+D’)
E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH

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 Yet Another Example!

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 NOR Gate
• Also a “universal” gate because ANY digital
circuit can be implemented with NOR gates
alone.
• This can be similarly proven as with the NAND
gate.

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 NOR Circuits
• To easily derive a NOR implementation of a boolean
function:
– Find a simplified POS
– POS is an OR-AND circuit
– Change OR-AND circuit to a NOR circuit
– Use the alternative symbols below

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 Two-Level NOR Gate
Implementation - Example
F(X,Y,Z) = m(0,6)
1. Express F’ in SOP form:
1. F’ = m(1,2,3,4,5,7)
= X’Y’Z + X’YZ’ + X’YZ + XY’Z’ + XY’Z + XYZ
2. F’ = XY’ + X’Y + Z
2. Take the complement of F’ to get F in the POS form:
F = (F’)' = (X'+Y)(X+Y')Z'
3. Obtain the OR-AND implementation for F.
4. Add bubbles and inverters to transform OR-AND
implementation to NOR-NOR implementation.

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 Example (cont.)

Two-level implementation with NORs

F = (F’)' = (X'+Y)(X+Y')Z'

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 XOR and XNOR
X Y F = XY
XOR: “not-equal” gate 0 0 0
0 1 1
X F 1 0 1
Y 1 1 0

X Y F = XY
XNOR: “equal” gate 0 0 1
0 1 0
X F
1 0 0
Y 1 1 1

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 Exclusive-OR (XOR) Function
• XOR (also ) : the “not-equal” function
• XOR(X,Y) = X  Y = X’Y + XY’
• Identities:
– X0=X
– X  1 = X’
– XX=0
– X  X’ = 1
• Properties:
– XY=YX
– (X  Y)  W = X  ( Y  W)

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 XOR function implementation
• XOR(a,b) = ab’ + a’b
• Straightforward: 5 gates
– 2 inverters, two 2-input ANDs, one 2-input OR
– 2 inverters & 3 2-input NANDs
• Nonstraightforward:
– 4 NAND gates

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 XOR circuit with 4 NANDs

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