measuring distance. The Range The range is the total distance covered by the distribution, from the highest score to the lowest score (using the upper and lower real limits of the range). RANGE = URL for X max – LRL for X min If scores span values 1 to 5, then the range is 5.5 to 0.5 = 5 Points When scores are measured in whole numbers, the range is also a measure of the number of discrete measurement categories: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 = 5-pt range Many computer programs use alternative definition as calculated by upper minus lower value: 5 – 1 = 4 The Range (Continued) Problems with the use of range as a measure of variability in a distribution The range does not consider all scores in a distribution, which makes it less than optimal for describing an entire distribution Thus, the range is considered a crude and unreliable measure of variability. Although the textbook does not care about which definition you use to measure the range, you need to know how you can calculate all three using the 1) range formula, 2) whole number approach for discrete categories, and 3) computer approach (see prior slide for details) The Standard Deviation Standard deviation measures the standard (average) distance between a score and the mean. The calculation of standard deviation can be summarized as a four-step process: The Standard Deviation (Continued) 1. Compute the deviation (distance from the mean) for each score - - a.k.a., the deviation score = (X – μ) 2. Square each deviation: (X - μ) 2 3. Compute the mean of the squared deviations. For a population, this involves summing the squared deviations (sum of squares, SS) and then dividing by N. The resulting value is called the variance (σ2) or mean square and measures the average squared distance from the mean. For samples, variance (s2) is computed by dividing the sum of the squared deviations (SS) by n - 1, rather than N. The value, n - 1, is know as degrees of freedom (df) and is used so that the sample variance will provide an unbiased estimate of the population variance. 4. Finally, take the square root of the variance to obtain the standard deviation. Calculating The Standard Deviation Standard Deviation for Population Two ways to calculate: 1) using definitional formula, and 2) using calculation formula. Use definitional formula for SS when the mean (μ) is a whole number (μ = 8/4 = 2) Variance (σ2) = SS/N = 22/4 = 5.50 SS = Σ(X - μ)2 = 1+4+16+1 = 22 Standard Deviation (σ) = = Score Deviation Squared Deviation (X) (X - μ) (X - μ) 2 1 (1 - 2) = - 1 (-1)2 = 1 0 (0 - 2) = - 2 (-2)2 = 4 6 (6 - 2) = +4 (+4)2 = 16 1 (1 - 2) = - 1 (-1)2 = 1 Standard Deviation for Population Two ways to calculate: 1) using definitional formula, and 2) using calculation formula. Use computational formula for SS when the mean (μ ( ) is not a whole number Example for scores 3, 1, 5, 1 (μ = 10/4 = 2.5) SS = Σ X 2 – [(ΣX ) 2 / N ]
SS = (9+1+25+1) – [(10) 2 / 4 ] SS = 36 – 25 = 11 Variance (σ2) = SS/N = 11/4 = 2.75 Standard Deviation (σ) = Standard Deviation for Sample As compared to the calculations for populations, the variance (and thus the standard deviation) for samples is computed by dividing the sum of the squared deviations (SS) by n - 1, rather than N. The value, n - 1, is know as degrees of freedom (df), which determine the number of scores in the sample that are independent and free to vary. DF is used so that the sample variance will provide an unbiased estimate of the population variance. Without correcting the denominator in the calculations for variance with the proper degrees of freedom, the variance will be under-estimated (i.e., biased). All of the prior steps for calculating SS still apply in relation to both the use of definitional and computational formulas, except that you will replace μ with M and N with n Standard Deviation for Sample Sample Variance a.k.a., Estimated Population Variance In the context of inferential statistics, the variance that exists in a set of sample data is often classified as error variance to indicate that the variance represents unexplained or uncontrolled differences between scores. Sample Standard Deviation a.k.a., Estimated Population Standard Deviation As “estimates,” there is always the potential for biases. A sample statistic is biased if the average value of the statistic either underestimates or overestimates the corresponding population parameter. A sample statistic is unbiased if the average value of the statistic equals the population parameter. NOTE: The average value of the statistic is obtained from all the possible samples for a specific sample size, n. Standard Deviation for Sample Consider the following sample (n = 7, M = 5) Score Deviation Squared Deviation (X) (X - M) (X - M) 2 1 (1-5) = - 4 (-4)2 = 16 6 (6-5) = + 1 (+1)2 = 1 4 (4-5) = - 1 (-1)2 = 1 3 (3-5) = - 2 (-2)2 = 4 8 (8-5) = + 3 (+3)2 = 9 7 (7-5) = + 2 (+2)2 = 4 6 (6-5) = + 1 (+1)2 = 1
The sample mean (M) = 35/7 = 5
Because the mean is a whole number, you can use the definitional formula for the sum of squares (SS) Standard Deviation for Sample Consider the following sample (n = 7, M = 5) Score Deviation Squared Deviation (X) (X - M) (X - M) 2 1 (1-5) = - 4 (-4)2 = 16 6 (6-5) = + 1 (+1)2 = 1 4 (4-5) = - 1 (-1)2 = 1 3 (3-5) = - 2 (-2)2 = 4 8 (8-5) = + 3 (+3)2 = 9 7 (7-5) = + 2 (+2)2 = 4 6 (6-5) = + 1 (+1)2 = 1
SSsample = 16+1+1+4+9+4+1 = 36 Variance (s2) = SS/(n-1) = 36/(7-1) = 36/6 = 6 Standard Deviation (s) = Standard Deviation for Sample with Computational Formula Consider the following sample (n = 7, M = 5) Score Score (X) Squared (X ) Σ X = 35 2
1 1 (Σ X) 2 = 1225 6 36 4 16 Σ X 2 = 211 Do NOT confuse the 3 9 SS denominator with the 8 64 denominator of the 7 49 sample variance (s2) 6 36
Variance (s2) = SS/(n-1) = 36/(7-1) = 36/6 = 6 Standard Deviation (s) = Properties of Standard Deviation If a constant is added to every score in a distribution, the standard deviation will not be changed. If you visualize the scores in a frequency distribution histogram, then adding a constant will move each score so that the entire distribution is shifted to a new location. The center of the distribution (the mean) changes, but the standard deviation remains the same.
If each score is multiplied by a constant, the standard deviation
will be changed - - i.e., the standard deviation will be multiplied by the same constant. Multiplying by a constant will multiply the distance between scores, and because the standard deviation is a measure of distance, it will also be multiplied. The Mean and Standard Deviation as Descriptive Statistics If you are given numerical values for the mean and the standard deviation, you should be able to construct a visual image (or a sketch) of the distribution of scores. As a general rule, about 70% of the scores will be within one standard deviation of the mean, and about 95% of the scores will be within a distance of two standard deviations of the mean.
