1/22/2018

Philosophy of Engineering Design

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 1 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Engineering Materials- Classification

Elastic
Ductile, Malleable Plastic Brittle
Definition Isotropic Definition
A material is said to be ductile if it is Anisotropic Brittleness denotes relatively little or no
capable of withstanding large strains elongation or increase in length at
under sustainable load before fracture Orthotropic fracture. The strain normally being below
occurs. 5%. A material that exhibits brittleness is
These large strains are accompanied by a called a brittle materials.
visible change in cross sectional Brittle materials therefore may fail
dimensions and therefore give warning of suddenly without visible warning.
impending failure Ex: concrete, cast iron, glass, timber,
Ex: mild steel, aluminium, copper, ceramic
polymer

2 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Properties of Engineering Materials

Physical Mechanical Chemical

Those derived from the Properties which relate to the Those pertaining to the
properties of matter or attributed behaviour of the material when composition and
to the physical structure subjected to acting loads. potential reaction of a
- density Mechanical properties are material
- Void content usually expressed in terms of - Acidity
- Texture quantities that are primarily - Alkalinity
function of stress & strain. - Resistance to
- Color
- Shape corrosion
- Permeability

Stress Strain Strength Stiffness Elasticity Plasticity Ductility Brittleness Hardness Endurance

3 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Hooke’s Law (1678)

(F)

(e)

Cross section area of the steel wire =A

Original length of the wire = l0

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Stress (σ)
Intensity of the internally distributed forces that resist a change in the form of the
body. It is a measurement of density of forces, defined as force per unit area of
cross section.
Unit- kN/m2 (Pa), N/mm2 (MPa)
σ = P/A

Strain (ε)
Proportional deformation produced in a material under the influence of stress

Numerical Ratio : Extended or shortened length/Original Length

ε = e/l0

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

The ratio of stress to strain in the linear region is known as modulus of elasticity.
E = σ/ε

5 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Stress-Strain Curve
0 to a - Linear, obeying Hook’s Law
a - Limit of proportionality
b - Elastic Limit (maximum stress that can be
applied to a material without producing a
permanent plastic deformation )
c - Upper yield point
d - Lower Yield point
d to f - strain increases at a roughly constant value of stress
f to g - Increase in stress accompanied by a large increase in
strain
g - Ultimate stress

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Problems
1. A steel bar of rectangular cross section, 30mm by 20mm carries an axial load
of 40kN. Estimate the average tensile stress over a normal cross section of the
bar.

2. A steel bolt, 25mm in diameter, carries a tensile load of 40kN. Estimate the
average tensile stress at the shank and at the screwed section, where the
diameter at the root of the thread is 21mm.

3. A cylindrical block of 300mm long has a circular cross section, 100mm in

diameter. It carries a total compression load of 100kN and under this load it
contracts by 0.2mm. Estimate the average compressive stress over a normal
cross section and the compressive strain.

7 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

4. A tensile test is carried out on a bar of mild steel of diameter 20mm. The bar
yields under a load of 80kN. It reaches a maximum load of 150kN and breaks
finally at a load of 70kN.
Estimate
i). The tensile stress at the yield point
ii). The ultimate tensile stress
iii). The average stress at the breaking point, if the diameter of the
fracture neck is 10mm

5. A circular metal rod of diameter 10mm is loaded in tension. When the tensile
load is 5kN, the extension of a 250mm length is measured accurately and
found to be 0.227mm . Estimate the modulus of elasticity of the metal.

6. A mild steel column is hollow and circular in cross section with an external
diameter of 350mm and an internal diameter of 300mm. It carries a
compressive axial load of 2000kN. Determine the direct stress in the column
and also the shortening of the column if its initial height is 5m. Take E=
205kN/mm2

8 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Relationship of stress and strain for various materials

(a)- Brittle
(b)- Linear elastic with distinct proportional limit (ex-: low carbon steel or mild steel)
(c) - Linear elastic with an indistinct proportional limit (ex-: aluminium)
(d) - None linear (ex-: concrete)

9 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Idealized short term stress-strain curve for designs

1. Normal weight concrete

Important properties to be known for basic designs are,

a). Characteristic compressive strength (fck)
Varies with the concrete grade
b). Modulus of elasticity (Ecm)
c). Tensile strength (fctk) - about one tenth of fck

10 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

2. Reinforcement Steel

Important properties to be known for basic designs are,

a). Characteristic yield strength(fyk) = 400 - 600 N/mm2
b). Modulus of elasticity (Es) = 200 kN/mm2

11 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

3. Structural Steel

Stress-Strain curve similar to item (2) above

Important properties to be known for basic designs are,

a). Nominal value of yield strength (fy)- Varies with the steel grade and the
thickness

b). Modulus of elasticity (E) = 210 kN/mm2

c). Poisson’s ratio (ν) = 0.30

d). Shear Modulus (G) = E/[2(1+ν)]

e). Coefficient of linear thermal expansion (α) = 12 x 10-6/0C

12 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

4. Timber

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Basic Properties of Some Materials

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

15 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

16 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

STRUCTURAL THEORY

Classification based on the nature of internal forces

1. Axial force member
A member that is subjected either to axial tensile or axial compressive force is referred to
as an axial force member. Ex: a cable and truss member
2. Bending and shear resisting member
Members are subjected predominantly to bending or flexural actions. Ex: a member
subjected to loads transverse to its length.
3. Members subjected to torsion
Members are subjected predominantly to torsion or twisting actions. Ex : a shaft
transmitting motion from one shaft to other.
4. Members subjected to a combined action
Members are subjected to any combination of axial force, bending moment, shear force
and torsion

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 17 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Basic rigid elements

1. Beams and Columns
Beams are generally horizontal, which carry loads applied transversely to their lengths
and transfer them to the supporting vertical columns or other supports. The beams bend
under transverse loads and are said to carry loads by bending. The elements carrying axial
compressive forces termed struts, when vertical they are termed columns.
2. Frames
A framed object or structure is made by assembling beam and column elements with rigid
joints.
3. Trusses
The truss is composed of short and straight discrete elements arranged in to triangulated
patterns. The truss is non-rigid, but it maintains its shape as a result of the exact way the
individual line elements are positioned relative to one another.
4. Arches
An arch is a curved line-forming structural member spanning between two points and
carry the loads to the supports while being subjected predominantly to axial compression.
5. Walls and Plates
These are rigid surface elements. A load-bearing wall can typically carry both vertically
and laterally acting loads along its length.

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 18
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Internal Forces
1. Tension force
Tension force tend to pull an element apart. The strength of a tension member is
generally independent of its length and tension stresses are uniformly distributed across the
cross section of the member.
2. Compression forces
Compression forces tend to crush or buckle the element. Short members tend to crush and
have higher strength compared to a tension member. The load carrying capacity of a long
member, however, decreases with the increase in the length. The long compression
members may become unstable and may suddenly snap out from beneath the load at
certain critical load levels. This phenomenon is called buckling. Because of this buckling
phenomenon, long compression members are not capable of carrying vey high loads.
3. Bending force
Bending force is a force state associate with bending of a member. The bending action
causes fibres on one face of the member to elongate, and hence are in tension, and fibres on
the opposite face to compress.
4. Shearing force
Shearing force is a force state associated with the action of opposing forces that tend to
cause one part of the member to slide with respect to the adjacent part.

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 19
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

5. Torsion
Torsion is a twisting action. Both tension and compression stresses are normally
developed in the member subjected to torsion.
6. Bearing stresses
Bearing stresses exist at the interface between two members when forces are transferred
from one member to another. They act perpendicular to contact surfaces. The bearing
stresses are also developed at the ends of beams where they rest on the walls.

Idealization of Structures for Analysis

The primary aim of the analysis is to determine the reactions, internal forces and
deformation at any point of the given body caused by applied loads and forces. To achieve
this objective, it becomes necessary to idealize a body in a simplified form emendable to
analysis procedure. The members are normally represented by their centroidal axis.

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 20
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018
Support Conditions
Pinned Connection
In this connection joint allows attached member to rotate freely but does not allow
translation in any direction. Consequently, the joint cannot provide moment resistance but
can provide force resistance in any direction.
Roller Connection
In addition to rotation, this connection also allows attached member to translate freely
parallel to the surface of the support, i.e. does not provide any force resistance parallel to
the surface of the support. However, the joint resists translations in the direction
perpendicular to the surface of the support.
Fixed Connection
This connection completely restrains rotations and translations of the attached members in
any direction. Consequently, the joint can provide moment and force resistances in any
direction.
Important-: For an object to be stable in equilibrium, the supports must be capable of
providing specific minimum number of force restraints. Ex: for a simple beam subjected to
the vertical and horizontal forces, the support must provide three force restraints for its
equilibrium corresponding to three conditions of equilibrium namely,
ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣMz = 0

21 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

22 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018
Equilibrium and Compatibility
Equilibrium and compatibility are used when trying to find the unknown forces in a
structure (beam, frame or truss). Before equilibrium or compatibility can be used on a
structure the determinacy of the structure must be found. If the structure to be analysed is
determined the unknown forces can be found using only the equilibrium equation for either
a 2-D or 3-D body. If the structure is found to be indeterminate then compatibility condition
must be used in addition to the equilibrium conditions.
Conditions of equilibrium
A structure in general is subjected to a set of forces which include external or applied forces,
internal forces or reactions that are developed within the body at connection points and
gravity forces caused by the mass of the elements. The structure must be in the state of
static equilibrium with respect to these forces.
i) Translational equilibrium ΣFx=0, ΣFy=0, ΣFz=0
ii) Rotational equilibrium ΣMx=0, ΣMy=0, ΣMz=0
Compatibility
Compatibility is used when solving indeterminate members because the equation of
equilibrium do not allow to solve for all of the unknowns within a system. Compatibility is a
method used to provide extra equation when trying to find the unknown in an
indeterminate member. This is done by relating the geometry of the deformed member with
the unknown forces in the structure. This method allows one or more of the unknown forces
to be shown as a factor of another unknown force result in a removal of one or more
unknowns.
23 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Analysis of Structures

Analytical Methods
There are three approaches to the analysis
1. Mechanic of Materials (Strength of materials)
2. Elastic theory (Special case of the more general field of continuum mechanics)
3. Finite element
Mechanic of Material Approach
Assumptions
a) The materials in question are elastic, that stress is related linearly to strain
b) Material (but not the structure) behaves identically regardless of direction of
the applied load.
c) All deformations are small.
d) Beams are long relative to their depth.

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 24 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Statically determinate and indeterminate structures

If for the stable structure it is possible to find the internal forces in all the
members constituting the structure and supporting reactions at all the supports provided
from statical equations of equilibrium only, the structure is said to be statically determinate.
System for which the principles of statical equilibrium are insufficient to
determine support reactions and/or internal force distributions, i.e. there are greater
number of unknowns than the number of equations of statical equilibrium, are known as
statically indeterminate or hyperstatic systems.
Structural systems may be
1. Externally indeterminate but internally determinate
2. Externally determinate but internally indeterminate
3. Externally and internally indeterminate
4. Externally and internally determinate
** A system which is externally and internally determinate is said to be determinate system.

2 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
5 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Statical Determinacy in frames

Let: m= total number of members in a truss
j= number of connections
Minimum number of members required for the geometric or configuration stability
m = 2j-3
If m< 2j-3 structure is unstable
m> 2j-3 structure with redundant members
** The expression serves as an indicator whether or not the internal forces in a structure can
be calculated by the equations of statics.
Since all the j joints of the structure are in equilibrium and there are two equilibrium
equations involving the summation of forces in X- and Y- directions, namely ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0
at each joint, 2j equations of static equilibrium are available for the entire structure to
compute the support reactions and internal forces in all the members.
Let: m= unknown member forces
r= unknown support reactions
For the adequacy of the number of the available equilibrium equations to compute the
support reactions and internal forces in all the members,
2j=(m+r) or m=2j-r - statically determinate

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International College of Business and Technology
6 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

If 2j < m+r, there are more unknowns than the number of equilibrium equations, the
structure is statically indeterminate. The degree of indeterminacy n=(m+r)-2j

If 2j > m+r, there are more equilibrium equations available than the number of unknowns,
such a structure is a mechanism and always unstable. The structure does not have unique
solution. Existence of more than one solution indicates instability

Ex:1 Determine whether the trusses shown in following figures are stable. If stable, then find
whether they are statically determinate or indeterminate.

2 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
7 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Sign Convention
Use normal sign convention adopted for a 3-dimensional right-handed system of
Cartesian or rectangular coordinate axes OX, OY and OZ with origin O on the extreme left of
the structure. The forces measured from the origin towards positive directions of axes are
always positive. Rotational moments expressed in vector form pointing towards positive
directions of the axes are positive. Thus, moments that tend to produce counterclockwise
rotations are considered positive and those tend to produce clockwise rotations are
considered negative.

Free - Body Diagrams

For static analysis of bodies subjected to external loads, analytical diagrams that
illustrate the force systems acting on the objects are called equilibrium or free-body
diagrams. Using equilibrium concepts, the numerical values of reactions that occur at
supports and hence internal forces, i.e. axial forces, shear forces and bending moments can
be determined. The major application of equilibrium analysis is in the evaluation of
reactions and internal forces by representing an object by a series of free body diagrams.

2 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
8 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

2 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
9 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Shear Force and Bending Moment

Relationships among loading, shear force, and bending moment

V+δV

A small element of the beam shown in figure above (left) is taken at a distance x from end 1.
The forces acting on the element are shown in figure above (right).

Resolving forces vertically,

V = (V+δV)+wδx and δV/δx = -w
Limiting condition
dV/dx = -w indicates that the slope of the shear force diagram, at any section,
equals the intensity of loading at that section.

3 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
0 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Alternatively, since
dV = -wdx
ʃdV = ʃ-wdx, and
x2
V2-V1 = ʃx1 -wdx where,
V1= Shear force in the beam at x=x1, V2 = shear force in the beam at x=x2 and the change in
shear force between the two sections equals the area of the load intensity diagram between
the two sections.

Taking moments about the lower right corner of the element gives the expression
M = (M+δM)- Vδx + w (δx )2/2
Neglecting the small value (δx )2 ,
δM/δx = V
The limiting condition is
dM/dx = V indicates that the slope of the bending moment diagram at any
section equals the shear force at that section.

3 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
1 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Alternatively, since
dM = Vdx
ʃdM = ʃVdx, and
x2
M2-M1 = ʃx1 Vdx where,
M1= Bending moment in the beam at x=x1, M2 = Bending moment in the beam at x=x2 and
the change in bending moment between the two sections equals the area of the shear force
diagram between the two sections.

32 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Analysis of statically determinate structures by Virtual Work and Energy

Theorem
These methods are perfectly adequate for the comparatively simple problems to which they
have been applied. However, other more powerful methods of analysis are required for more
complex structures which may possess a high degree of statical indeterminacy. These
methods will, in addition, be capable of providing rapid solutions for some statically
determinate problems, particularly those involving the calculation of displacements.
The methods fall into two categories and are based on two important concepts; the first, the
principle of virtual work, is the most fundamental and powerful tool available for the
analysis of statically indeterminate structures and has the advantage of being able to deal
with conditions other than those in the elastic range, while the second, based on strain
energy, can provide approximate solutions of complex problems for which exact solutions
may not exist. The two methods are, in fact, equivalent in some cases since, although the
governing equations differ, the equations themselves are identical.
Work
Before we consider the principle of virtual work in detail, it is important to clarify exactly
what is meant by work. The basic definition of work in elementary mechanics is that ‘work
is done when a force moves its point of application’.

33 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

For case (a),

WF = F(∆cosα) or WF = (F cosα) ∆
For case (b),
Wc = F(a/2)θ + F(a/2)θ = Faθ
For case (c),
WM = Mθ

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Note-: The force, F, and moment, M are in position before the displacements take place and
are not the cause of them. Also in Case (a), the component of ∆ parallel to the direction of F
is in the same direction as F; if it had been in the opposite direction the work done would
have been negative. The same argument applies to the work done by the moment, M, where
we see in Case (3) that the rotation, θ, is in the same senses as M. Note also that if the
displacement, ∆, had been perpendicular to the force, F, no work would have been done by F.
Finally it should be remembered that work is a scalar quantity since it is not associated with
direction. Thus the work done by a series of forces is the algebaic sum of the work done by
each force.
Principle of Virtual Work

In figure above a particle, A, is acted upon by a number of concurrent forces, F1, F2,
……,Fk,….,Fr; the resultant of these forces is R. Suppose that the particle is given a small
arbitrary displacement, ∆v, to A’ in some specified direction; ∆v is an imaginary or virtual
displacement and is sufficiently small so that the directions of F1, F2, etc., are unchanged.
Let θR be the angle that the resultant, R, of the forces makes with the direction of ∆v and θ1,
θ2,…, θk,….., θr the angles that F1, F2,…,Fk,…, Fr make with the direction of ∆v, respectively.
35 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage
International College of Business and Technology
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 1/22/2018

Then the total virtual work, WF, done by the forces F as the particle moves through the
virtual displacement, ∆v , is given by
WF = F1 ∆v cosθ1 + F2 ∆v cosθ2 + …+ Fk ∆v cosθk +…+ Fr∆v cosθr
Thus

If the particle, A, is in equilibrium under the action of the forces, F1, F2,…., Fk,…, Fr, the
resultant, R of the force is zero. It follows from the above equation that the virtual work
done by the forces, F, during the virtual displacement, ∆v , is zero.
It can be stated the principle of virtual work for a particle

If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of a number of forces the total work done
by the forces for a small arbitrary displacement of the particle is zero.

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

It is possible for the total work done by the forces to be zero even though the particle is not
in equilibrium if the virtual displacement is taken to be in a direction perpendicular to their
resultant, R. We cannot, therefore, state the converse of the above principle unless we
specify that the total work done must be zero for any arbitrary displacement.
Thus;
A particle in equilibrium under the action of a system of forces if the total work done by
the forces is zero for ant virtual displacement of the particle.
Note-: The ∆v is a purely imaginary displacement and is not related in anyway to the
possible displacement of the particle under the action of the forces F. ∆v has been introduced
purely as a device for setting up the work-equilibrium relationship. The forces, F, therefore
remain unchanged in magnitude and direction during this imaginary displacement; this
would not be the case if the displacement were real.
Principle of Virtual work for a Rigid Body

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Consider the rigid body shown in figure above, which is acted upon by a system of external
forces, F1, F2,…., Fk,…, Fr. These external forces will induce internal forces in the body,
which may be regarded as comprising an infinite number of particles; on adjacent particles,
such as A1 and A2, these internal forces will be equal and opposite, in other words self-
equilibrating. Suppose now that the rigid body is given a small, imaginary, that is virtual
displacement, ∆v (or a rotation or a combination of both), in some specified direction. The
external and internal forces then do virtual work and the total virtual work done , Wt, is the
sum of the virtual work, We, done by the external forces and the virtual work, Wi, done by
the internal forces.
Wt = We + Wi
Since the body is rigid, all the particles in the body move through the same displacement, ∆v,
so that the virtual work done on all the particles is numerically the same. However, for a pair
of adjacent particles, such as A1 and A2 in above figure, the self equilibrating forces are in
opposite directions, which means that the work done on A1 is opposite in sign to the work
done on A2. Thus the sum of the virtual work done on A1 and A2 is zero. The argument can
be extended to the infinite number of pairs of particles in the body from which we conclude
that the internal virtual work produced by a virtual displacement in a rigid body is zero.
Wt = We
Since the body is rigid and the internal virtual work is therefore zero, we may regard the
body as a large particle. It follows that if the body is in equilibrium under the action of set of
forces, F1, F2,…., Fk,…, Fr , the total virtual work done by the external forces during an
arbitrary virtual displacement of the body is zero.

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International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 Virtual work in a deformable body 1/22/2018
In structural analysis we are not generally concerned with forces acting on a rigid body.
Structures and structural members deform under load, which means that if we assign a
virtual displacement to a particular point in a structure, not all points in the structure will
suffer the same virtual displacement as would be the case if the structure were rigid. This
means that the virtual work produced by the internal forces is not zero as it is in the rigid
body case, since the virtual work produced by the self-equilibrating forces on adjacent
particles does not cancel out. The total virtual work produced by applying a virtual
displacement to a deformable body acted upon by a system of external forces is
Wt = We + Wi
If the body is in equilibrium under the action of the external force system then every particle
in the body is also in equilibrium. Therefore, from the principle of virtual work, the virtual
work done by the forces acting on the particle is zero irrespective of whether the forces are
external or internal. It follows that, since the virtual work is zero for all particles in the body,
it is zero for the complete and
We + Wi = 0
Note that in the above argument only the conditions of equilibrium and the concept of work
are employed. Thus the above equation does not require the deformable body to be linearly
elastic (i.e.it need not obey Hooke’s law) so that the principle of virtual work may be applied
to any body or structure that is rigid, elastic or plastic. The principle does require that
displacements, whether real or imaginary, must be small, so that we may assume that
external and internal forces are unchanged in magnitude and direction during the
displacements.

39 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 In addition the virtual displacements must be compatible with the geometry of the structure
1/22/2018
and the constraints that are applied, such as those at a support .

Problems
Calculate the support reactions in the simply supported beam shown in figures below.

1. 3.

2. 4.

40 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Loads acting on structures

Dead Loads (DL) -Permanent actions
The loads which constant in magnitude and fixed in location through out the lifetime of the
structure. Major part is the weight of structure itself and all the other permanent
construction including services of a permanent nature.
The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using schedule of weights of building
materials given in BS 648 (Table 2.1), Reynold’s Handbook or manufacturer’s literature.
Symbols
gk -: Uniformly distributed characteristic dead loads
Gk -: Total characteristic dead loads

Gk

Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology 41 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

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International College of Business and Technology
2 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Live loads(LL), Imposed loads (IL) - Variable actions

The load assumed to be produced by the intended occupancy or use, including the weight of
movable partitions, distributed, concentrated, impact & inertia loads. Their magnitude and
distribution any given time are uncertain and even their maximum intensities throughout
the lifetime of the structure are not known with precision.
Symbols
qk -: Uniformly distributed characteristic live loads
Qk -: Total characteristic live loads

Qk

4 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
3 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Environmental Loads - Variable actions

Consist mainly Snow load, Wind pressure and suction, Earthquake load (i.e inertia forces
caused by earthquake motions), Soil pressures on subsurface portions of structure, loads of
possible ponding of rain water on flat surfaces and forces caused by temperature
differentials. These loads are uncertain both magnitude & distribution.
Wind Loads (WL)
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or
equally well, exert suction or negative pressures on the structure. Under particular
situations, the latter may well lead to critical conditions and must be considered in the
design.
The characteristic wind loads acting on a structure can be assessed in accordance with the
recommendations given in CP3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 Wind Loads or BS 6399 : Part 2:
1997 Code of Practice for Wind Loads.
Symbols
wk -: Uniformly distributed characteristic wind loads
Wk -: Total characteristic wind loads

4 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
4 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

DESIGN METHODS

Relationship between stress and strength

1. Permissible stress design
In permissible stress design, sometimes referred to as modular ratio or elastic design, the
stresses in the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain proportion of
the yield stress of the construction material, i.e. the stress levels are limited to the elastic
range.
2. Load factor design
Load factor or plastic design was used to take account of the behaviour of the structure
once the yield point of the construction material had been reached. This approach involved
calculating the collapse load of the structure. The working load was derived by dividing the
collapse load by a load factor.

45 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

3. Limit State Design

The limit state design can be seen as a compromise between the permissible and load factor
methods. It is in fact a more comprehensive approach which takes into account both
methods in appropriate ways. Most modern structural codes of practice are now based on
the limit state approach such as,
BS 8110 for concrete BS 5950 for structural steelwork
BS 5400 for bridges BS 5628 for masonry
Code of practice for design in timber, BS5268 and old structural steelwork code, BS 449 are
based on permissible stress designs.
Ultimate limit state
The whole structure or its elements should not collapse, overturn or buckle when subjected
to the design loads. Considerations are,
Strength
The structure must be designed to carry the most severe combination of loads to which it is
subjected. The sections of the elements must be capable of resisting axial loads, shears and
moments derived from the analysis. The design is made for ultimate loads and design
strengths of materials with partial safety factors applied to loads and material strengths.

46 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Stability
The layout should be such as to give a stable and robust structure. Overall stability should
ensure compatibility of design and details of parts and components. The structure should be
such as to transmit all loads, dead, imposed and wind, safely to the foundations.
Robustness
Damage to a small area or failure of a single element should not cause collapse of a major
part of a structure. This means that the design should be resistant to progressive collapse.
Serviceability limit state
The structure should not become unfit for use due to excessive deflection, cracking or
vibration. Considerations are,
Deflection
The deformation of the structure should not adversely affect its efficiency or appearance.
Cracking
Cracking should be kept within reasonable limits by correct detailing

47 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
6102BEUG- Lecture Note: 01 1/22/2018

Design values of actions

In general, the design value of an action is obtained by multiplying the
representative value by the appropriate partial safety factor for actions.
The maximum values of partial safety factors for permanent and variable actions
recommended in EC1 are 1.35 and 1.5 respectively. The comparable values in BS
8110 are 1.4 and 1.6.
It can also be seen that the partial safety factors for actions depend on a number of
other aspects including the category of limit state as well as the effect of the action
on the design situation under consideration.

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International College of Business and Technology
8 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
6102BEUG- Lecture Note: 01 1/22/2018

4 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
9 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
6102BEUG- Lecture Note: 01 1/22/2018

Ψ0 - accompanying factor for combination value

Ψ1 - accompanying factor for frequent value
Ψ2 - accompanying factor for quasi-permanent value

ξ - Reduction factor for unfavorable permanent actions

recommended value is 0.925 in UK national Annex

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International College of Business and Technology
0 B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)
 1/22/2018

Load Transfer

Fig: Sequence of load transfer between element of a structure

51 Prepared by: Eng. Chamil Duminda Mahagamage

International College of Business and Technology
B.Sc.Eng (Hons), C Eng, MIE(SL)