Computer Systems: End User and

Enterprise Computing
• computers are systems of
• input, processing, output, storage, and control
components.
• At the dawn of the human concept of
numbers:
• humans used their fingers and toes to
perform basic mathematical activities.
• Our ancestors realized: by using some objects
to represent digits, they could perform
computations beyond the limited scope of
their own fingers and toes.
• Calculate is derived from calculus
• Latin word for small stone:
• suggests that pebbles or beads were arranged
to form the familiar abacus
• Abacus: the first human-made computing
device.
• Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician,
invented what is believed to be the first
mechanical adding machine in 1642.
• Pascal used wheels to move counters.
 Age of industrialization
• use of cards
• punched with holes, it was possible for the
Jacquard loom to weave fabrics in a variety of
patterns.
• The idea of using punched cards to store a
predetermined pattern to be woven by the
loom clicked in the mind of Charles Babbage.
Preparing the cards with the pattern
for the cloth to be woven
 Analytical Engine
• He foresaw a machine that could perform all
mathematical calculations,
• store values in its memory, and perform
logical comparisons among values.
• He called it the Analytical Engine.
Charles Babbage (1791-1871)
The Father of Computers
• Babbage’s analytical engine, however, was
never built.
• It lacked one thing—electronics.
 The ENIAC
• Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer:
the first electronic digital computer.
• It was completed in 1946 at the Moore School of
Electrical Engineering of the University of
Pennsylvania.
• It had no moving parts.
• It was programmable and had the capability to
store problem calculations.
• ENIAC used
• vacuum tubes (about 18,000).
 First Generation Computers
• A computer that uses vacuum tube
technology are called as first generation
computers.
• ENIAC could add in 0.2 of a millisecond and
about 5000 computations per second.
• The principle drawback of ENIAC was its size
and processing ability.
• It occupied over 1500 sq feet and could
process only one problem at a time.
 UNIVAC 1
• In the 1950s, Remington Rand manufactured
the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Calculator).
• could calculate at the rate of 10,000 additions
per second.
• In 1957, IBM (International business
machines) developed the IBM 704, which
could perform 100,000 calculations per
second.
 Second Generation computers
• In the late 1950s, transistors were invented.
• quickly replaced vacuum tubes.
• A transistor-based computer could perform
200,000 to 250,000 calculations per second.
• The transistorized computer represents the
second generation of computer.
 Third generation computers
• In the mid-1960s the third generation of
computers came into being.
• Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated
Circuits.
• Transistors were miniaturized(small scale) and
placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors.
• Drastically increased the speed and efficiency
of computers.
 Fourth generation computers
• The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980.
• They were characterized by further
miniaturization of circuits, increased
multiprogramming, and virtual storage memory.
• used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits.
• circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements.
• circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.
 Fifth generation computers
• In the 1980s the fifth generation of computers
operated at speeds of 3 to 5 million
calculations per second (for small-scale
computers) and 10 to 15 million instructions
per second (for large-scale computers).
• Fifth generation computing devices, based on
artificial intelligence.
• still in development
ENIAC
 Types of Computer Systems
• Categories such as mainframe, midrange, and
microcomputer systems are still used to
• help us express the relative processing power
and number of end users that can be
supported by different types of computers.
 Micro computers
• Micro computers are the most important
category of computer systems for both
business people and consumers.
• usually called a personal computer, or PC,.
• Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and
shapes for a variety of purposes.
The Computer System Concept
 Computer Processing speeds
• How fast are computer systems?
• Early computer processing speeds were
measured in milliseconds and microseconds.
• Now computers operate in the nanosecond
range, with picosecond speed being attained
by some computers.
• For example, an average person taking one
step each nanosecond would circle the earth
about 20 times in one second!
 Units to measure Speeds of a
computer
• Most computers can now process program
instructions at million instructions per second
(MIPS)speeds.
• Another measure of processing speed is
megahertz(MHz), or millions of cycles per
second, and gigahertz(GHz), or billions of
cycles per second.
 Clock speed of a micro processor
• Clock speed is used to rate microprocessors by
the speed of their timing circuits or internal
clock rather than by the number of specific
instructions they can process in one second.
• such ratings can be misleading indicators of
the effective processing speed of
microprocessors and their throughput.
 Throughput
• The amount of data moved successfully from
one place to another in a given time period,
and typically measured in bits per second
(bps), as in megabits per second (Mbps) or
gigabits per second (Gbps).
 Processing speed depends on:
• depends on a variety of factors:
• including the size of circuitry paths, or buses, that
interconnect microprocessor components;
• the capacity of instruction processing registers;
• the use of high-speed cache memory;
• and the use of specialized microprocessors such
as a math coprocessor to do arithmetic
calculations faster.
 Moore’s Law
• Can computers get any faster?
• Can we afford the computers of the future?
• Both of these questions can be answered by
understanding Moore’s law.
• Who was Gordon Moore?
• Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel Corp., made
his famous observation in 1965, just four years
after the first integrated circuit was
commercialized.
• Moore observed an exponential growth
(doubling every 18 to 24 months) in the
number of transistors per integrated circuit
and predicted that this trend would continue.
• Through a number of advances in technology,
Moore’s law, the doubling of transistors every
couple of years, has been maintained, and still
holds true today.
 Peripherals
• the generic name given to all input, output,
and secondary storage devices that are part of
a computer system, but are not part of the
CPU.
• all peripherals are online devices; that is, they
are separate from, but can be electronically
connected to and controlled by, a CPU.
 Input Technologies
• natural user interface:
• enter data and commands directly and easily
into a computer system
• through pointing devices like electronic mice
and touchpads,
• with technologies like optical scanning,
handwriting recognition, and voice
recognition.
 Pointing Devices
• Keyboards ( Commonly used)
• pointing devices are a better alternative for
issuing commands, making choices, and
responding to prompts displayed on your video
screen.
• Work with GUI
• GUI:
• presents you with icons, menus, windows,
buttons, bars, and so on, for your selection.
 Pointing Devices
• Electronic Mouse
• to issue commands and make icon and menu
selections.
• Trackball
• turn a roller ball with only its top exposed outside its
case to move the cursor on the screen
• pointing stick
• (also called a trackpoint) is a small button-like device,
sometimes likened to the eraser head of a pencil. It is
usually centered one row above the space bar of a
keyboard
• Touchpad
• is a small rectangular touch-sensitive surface
usually placed below the keyboard.
• Touch screens
• are devices that allow you to use a computer
by touching the surface of its video display
screen.
 Pen Based Computing
• used in many hand-held computers and personal digital assistants.
• TabletPCs and PDAs contain fast processors and software that
recognizes and digitizes handwriting, hand printing, and hand
drawing.
• They have a pressure-sensitive layer, similar to that of a touch
screen, under their slate-like liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.
• Instead of writing on a paper form fastened to a clipboard or using
a keyboard device, you can use a pen to make selections, send e-
mail, and enter handwritten data directly into a computer.
• You can use the digitizer pen as a pointing device, or use it to draw
or write on the pressure-sensitive surface of the graphics tablet.
Your handwriting or drawing is digitized by the computer, accepted
as input.
 The Turing Test!
• “Turing test” is a hypothetical test to
determine whether a computer system
reaches the level of “artificial intelligence.”
• If the computer can fool a person into
thinking it is another person, then it is has
artificial intelligence.
• Except in very narrow areas, no computer has
passed the Turing test.
 Assignment:3
• Discuss about the output technologies and the
storage trade offs been made in computer
systems.
 Speech recognition
• may be the future of data entry
• Early speech recognition products used discrete
speech recognition, where you had to pause
between each spoken word.
• New continuous speech recognition(CSR)
software recognizes continuous, conversationally
paced speech
• Speech recognition systems digitize, analyze, and
classify your speech and its sound patterns.
• The software compares your speech patterns
to a database of sound patterns in its
vocabulary and passes recognized words to
your application software.
• speech recognition systems require training
the computer to recognize your voice and its
unique sound patterns in order to achieve a
high degree of accuracy.
Applications of speech recognition
• Training such systems involves repeating a variety
of words and phrases in a training session, as well
as using the system extensively
• manufacturers use speech recognition systems
for the inspection, inventory, and quality control
of a variety of products;
• airlines and parcel delivery companies use them
for voice-directed sorting of baggage and parcels.
 Optical scanners
• Optical scanning devices read text or graphics
and convert them into digital input for your
computer.
• optical scanning enables the direct entry of
data from source documents into a computer
system.
Another technology: Optical character
recognition
• Another optical scanning technology is called
optical character recognition (OCR)
• They can read the characters and codes on
products tags, product labels, credit card
receipts, utility bills, airline tickets, and other
documents.
 Optical Hand Held wands
• Devices such as hand-held optical scanning
wands are frequently used to read bar codes,
codes that utilize bars to represent characters.
• Universal Product Code (UPC) bar coding that you
see on just about every product sold.
• Supermarket scanners emit laser beams that are
reflected off a code.
• The reflected image is converted to electronic
impulses that are sent to the in-store computer,
where they are matched with pricing information.
• Pricing information is returned to the
terminal, visually displayed, and printed on a
receipt for the customer.
Optical Scanning Wand
 Magnetic stripe technology
• is a familiar form of data entry that helps
computers read credit cards.
• The coating of the magnetic stripe on the back
of such cards can hold about 200 bytes of
information.
• Customer account numbers can be recorded
on the mag stripe so it can be read by bank
ATMs, credit card authorization terminals, and
many other types of magnetic stripe readers.
• Digital cameras represent another fast-growing
set of input technologies.
• Digital still cameras and digital video cameras
(digital camcorders) enable you to shoot, store,
and download still photos or full-motion video
with audio into your PC.
• Then you can use image-editing software to edit
and enhance the digitized images and include
them in newsletters, reports, multimedia
presentations, and Web pages.
 Storage Elements
• The smallest element of data is called a bit,
short for binary digit, which can have a value
of either zero or one.
• The capacity of memory chips is usually
expressed in terms of bits.
• A byte is a basic grouping of bits that the
computer operates as a single unit.
• A byte consists of eight bits and represents
one character of data in most computer
coding schemes.
 The Number Systems
• we have learned to do our computations using
the numbers 0 through 9, the digits of the
decimal number system.
• Every computer processor is made of millions of
tiny switches that can be turned off or on.
• the binary number system
• these switches have only two states, it makes
sense for a computer to perform its computations
with a number system that only has two digits.
• These digits (0 and 1) correspond to the off/on
positions of the switches in the computer
processor.
• With only these two digits, a computer can
perform all the arithmetic that we can with 10
digits.
• The binary system is built upon an understanding
of exponentiation (raising a number to a power).
• In contrast to the more familiar decimal system
where each place represents the number 10
raised to a power (ones, tens, hundreds,
thousands, etc.),
• each place in the binary system represents the
number 2 raised to successive powers(2 power 0,
2 power 1, 2 power 2, etc.).
 Semiconductor Memory
• The primary storage (main memory) of your
computer consists of microelectronic
semiconductor memory chips.
• the major attractions of semiconductor
memory are its small size, great speed, and
shock and temperature resistance.
• One major disadvantage of most
semiconductor memory is its volatility.
• two basic types of semiconductor memory:
• random-access memory(RAM)
• read-only memory (ROM)
 RAM
• RAM: random-access memory. These memory
chips are the most widely used primary
storage medium. Each memory position can
be both sensed (read) and changed (written),
so it is also called read/write memory. This is a
volatile memory.
 ROM (read-only memory)
• Nonvolatile random-access memory chips are used for
permanent storage.
• ROM can be read but not erased or overwritten.
• Frequently used control instructions in the control unit and
programs in primary storage (such as parts of the operating
system) can be permanently burned in to the storage cells
during manufacture.
• This is sometimes called firmware.
• Variations include :
• PROM (programmable read-only memory)
• EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory),
can be permanently or temporarily programmed after
manufacture.
 Flash drive
• Uses semi conductor technology.
• Flash memory uses a small chip containing
thousands of transistors that can be
programmed to store data for virtually
unlimited periods without power.
• The small drives can be easily transported in
your pocket and are highly durable
 Magnetic Disks
• Assignment :4