Educational Research
Chapter 7
Correlational Research
Gay, Mills, and Airasian
Topics to Be Discussed
Definition, purpose, and limitation of
correlational research
Correlation coefficients and their
significance
Process of conducting correlational
research
Relationship studies
Prediction studies
Correlational Research
Definition
Whether and to what degree variables are
related
Purpose
Determine relationships
Make predictions
Limitation
Cannot indicate cause and effect
Objectives 1.1, 1.2, & 1.3
The Process
Problem selection
Variables to be correlated are selected on the
basis of some rationale
Math attitudes and math achievement
Teachers’ sense of efficacy and their effectiveness
Increases the ability to meaningfully interpret
results
Objective 2.1
The Process
Participant and instrument selection
Minimum of 30 subjects
Instruments must be valid and reliable
Higher validity and reliability requires smaller samples
Lower validity and reliability requires larger samples
Design and procedures
Collect data on two or more variables for each
subject
Data analysis
Compute the appropriate correlation coefficient
Objectives 2.2 & 2.3
Correlation Coefficients
A correlation coefficient identifies the
size and direction of a relationship
Size/magnitude
Ranges from 0.00 – 1.00
Direction
Positive or negative
Objectives 3.1, 3.2, & 3.3
Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the size of correlations
General rule
Less than .35 is a low correlation
Between .36 and .65 is a moderate correlation
Above .66 is a high correlation
Predictions
Between .60 and .70 are adequate for group
predictions
Above .80 is adequate for individual predictions
Objective 3.5
Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the size of correlations (cont.)
Criterion-related validity
Above .60 for affective scales is adequate
Above .80 for tests is minimally acceptable
Inter-rater reliability
Above .90 is very good
Between .80 and .89 is acceptable
Between .70 and .79 is minimally acceptable
Lower than .69 is problematic
Objective 3.5
Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the direction of correlations
Direction
Positive
High scores on the predictor are associated with high
scores on the criterion
Low scores on the predictor are associated with low
scores on the criterion
Negative
High scores on the predictor are associated with low
scores on the criterion
Low scores on the predictor are associated with high
scores on the criterion
Positive or negative does not mean good or bad
Objective 3.3
Correlation Coefficients
Interpreting the size and direction of
correlations using the general rule
+.95 is a strong positive correlation
+.50 is a moderate positive correlation
+.20 is a low positive correlation
-.26 is a low negative correlation
-.49 is a moderate negative correlation
-.95 is a strong negative correlation
Which of the correlations above is the
strongest, the first or last?
Objective 3.3 & 3.5
Correlation Coefficients
Scatterplots
Graphical presentations of correlations
Example of predicting from an attitude
scale – EX 1 – to an achievement test –
EX 2
Predictor variable - EX1 - is on the
horizontal axis
Criterion variable - EX 2 - is on the vertical
axis
Objective 3.4
An Example of a Scatterplot
50.00 Linear Regression
ex2 = 11.23 + 0.72 * ex1
R-Square = 0.66
45.00
40.00
ex2
35.00
30.00
30.00 40.00 50.00
Objective 3.4
ex1
Correlation Coefficients
Common variance
Definition
The extent to which variables vary in a systematic manner
Interpreted as the percentage of variance in the criterion
variable explained by the predictor variable
Computation
The squared correlation coefficient - r2
Examples
If r = .50 then r = .25
2
25% of the variance in the criterion can be explained
by the predictor
If r = .70 then r = .49
2
49% of the variance in the criterion can be explained
by the predictor
Objectives 3.6 & 3.7
Statistical Significance
Statistical significance
Is the observed coefficient different from 0.00?
Does the correlation represent a true relationship?
Is the correlation only the result of chance?
Determining statistical significance
Consult a table of the critical values of r
See Table A.2 in Appendix A
Three common levels of significance
.01 (1 chance out of 100)
.05 (5 chances out of 100)
.10 (10 chances out of 100)
Objectives 4.1 & 4.3
Statistical Significance
Sample size and statistical significance
Small samples require higher correlations for significance
Large samples require lower correlations for significance
Practical significance and statistical significance
Small correlation coefficients can be statistically significant even
though they have little practical significance
+.20
Statistically significant at the .05 level if the sample is about 100
Little or no practical significance because it is very low and
predicts only .04 of the variation in the criterion scores
-.30
Statistically significant at the .05 level if the sample is about 40
Little or no practical significance because it is low and predicts
only .09 of the variation in the criterion scores
Objectives 4.2 & 4.4
Relationship Studies
General purpose
Gain insight into variables that are related to other
variables relevant to educators
Achievement
Self-esteem
Self-concept
Two specific purposes
Suggest subsequent interest in establishing cause
and effect between variables found to be related
Control for variables related to the dependent
variable in experimental studies
Objectives 5.1 & 5.2
Conducting Relationship Studies
Identify a set of variables
Limit to those variables logically related to the criterion
Identify a population and select a sample
Identify appropriate instruments for measuring each
variable
Collect data for each instrument from each subject
Compute the appropriate correlation coefficient
Objective 6.1
Types of Correlation Coefficients
The type of correlation coefficient depends on the
measurement level of the variables
Pearson r - continuous predictor and criterion variables
Math attitude and math achievement
Spearman rho – ranked or ordinal predictor and criterion
variables
Rank in class and rank on a final exam
Phi coefficient – dichotomous predictor and criterion
variables
Gender and pass/fail status on a high stakes test
See Table 7.2
Objectives 7.1, 7.2, & 7.3
Linear and Curvilinear Relationships
Linear relationships
Plots of the scores on two variables are best
described by a straight line
Math scores and science scores
Teacher efficacy and teacher effectiveness
Curvilinear relationships
Plots of scores on two variables are best described
by functions
Age and athletic ability
Anxiety and achievement
Estimated by the eta correlation
Objectives 8.1, 8.2, & 8.3
An Example of a Linear Relationship
1.0000
Linear Regression
fp = 0.39 + 0.01 * ex1
R-Square = 0.80
0.9000
fp
0.8000
0.7000
30.00 40.00 50.00
ex1
Objective 8.4
An Example of a Curvilinear Relationship
100.00 LLR Smoother
75.00
score
50.00
25.00
0.00
2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
study
Objective 8.4
Factors that Influence Correlations
Sample size
The larger the sample the higher the likelihood of
a high correlation
Analysis of subgroups
If the total sample consists of males and females each
gender represents a subgroup
Results across subgroups can be different because they
are being obscured by the analysis of the data for the
total sample
Reduces the size of the sample
Potentially reduces variation in the scores
Objective 9.1
Factors that Influence Correlations
Variation
The greater the variation in scores the
higher the likelihood of a strong correlation
The lower the variation in scores the
higher the likelihood of a weak correlation
Attenuation
Correlation coefficients are lower when the
instruments being used have low reliability
A correction for attenuation is available
Objectives 9.2 & 9.3
Prediction Studies
Attempts to describe the predictive
relationships between or among
variables
The predictor variable is the variable from
which the researcher is predicting
The criterion variable is the variable to
which the researcher is predicting
Objectives 10.1 & 10.2
Prediction Studies
Three purposes
Facilitates decisions about individuals to
help a selection decision
Tests variables believed to be good
predictors of a criterion
Determines the predictive validity of an
instrument
Objective 11.1
Prediction Studies
Single and multiple predictors
Linear regression - one predictor and one
criterion
Y’ = a + bX
r2
Multiple regression – more than one
predictor and one criterion
Y’ = a + bX1 + bX2 + … + bXi
r2 or the coefficient of determination
Objective 11.4
Conducting a Prediction Study
Identify a set of variables
Limit to those variables logically related to the criterion
Identify a population and select a sample
Identify appropriate instruments for measuring each
variable
Ensure appropriate levels of validity and reliability
Collect data for each instrument from each subject
Typically data is collected at different points in time
Compute the results
The multiple regression coefficient
The multiple regression equation (i.e., the
prediction equation)
Conducting a Prediction Study
Issues of concern
Shrinkage – the tendency of a prediction
equation to become less accurate when
used with a group other than the one on
which the equation was originally
developed
Cross validation – validation of a prediction
equation with another group of subjects to
identify problematic variables
Objective 11.3
Conducting a Prediction Study
Issues of concern (cont.)
Errors of measurement (e.g., low validity or
reliability) diminish the accuracy of the prediction
Intervening variables can influence the predictive
process if there is too much time between
collecting the predictor and criterion variables
Criterion variables defined in general terms (e.g.,
teacher effectiveness, success in school) tend to
have lower prediction accuracy than those defined
very narrowly (e.g., overall GPA, test scores)
Objective 11.5
Differences between Types of Studies
Correlational research is a general category
that is usually discussed in terms of two
variables
Relationship studies develop insight into the
relationships between several variables
The measurement of all variables occurs at about
the same time
Predictive studies involve the predictive
relationships between or among variables
The predictor variables are collected long before
the criterion variable
Objectives 11.2 & 11.3
Other Correlation Analyses
Path analysis
Investigates the patterns of relationships among a
number of variables
Results in a diagram that indicates the specific
manner by which variables are related (i.e., paths)
and the strength of those relationships
An extension of this analysis is structural equation
modeling (SEM)
Clarifies the direct and indirect relationships among
variables based on underlying theoretical constructs
More precise than path analysis
Often known as LISREL for the first computer program
used to conduct this analysis
Objective 13.1
Other Correlation Analyses
Discriminant function analysis
Similar to multiple regression except that
the criterion variable is categorical
Typically used to predict group
membership
High or low anxiety
Achievers or non-achievers
Objective 13.2
Other Correlation Analyses
Cannonical correlation
An extension of multiple regression in which more
than one predictor variable and more than one
criterion variable are used
Factor analysis
A correlational analysis used to take a large
number of variables and group them into a smaller
number of clusters of similar variables called
factors
Objectives 13.3 & 13.4
A Checklist of Questions
Was the correct correlation coefficient
used?
Is the validity and reliability of the
instruments acceptable?
Is there a restricted range of scores?
How large is the sample?
