Program StudiTeknik Geologi Dr. Ir.

Eko Widianto, MT
Physiography of Indonesia
FakultasTeknologi Kebumian dan Energi Dr. Ir. M. Burhannudinnur, MSc
UniversitasTrisakti Semester Genap_2013 - 2014
 LECTURE MATERIALS
1. INTRODUCTION (1X)
a. Definition
b. Geophysical Methods and their main applications
c. Level of Petroleum Investigation

2. REFLECTION SEISMIC (8X)

a. Fundamental of Seismic Method
b. Acquisition
c. Processing
d. Structural Interpretation
e. Stratigraphic Interpretation
f. Exercise
g. Field Trip (if possible)

1. GRAVITY (3X)
a. Introduction and general application of gravity data
b. Gravity data analysis for Oil and Gas Exploration
c. Paradigm Shift in Gravity data utilization
d. Gravity data analysis for Oil and Gas Reservoir Monitoring (Time lapse)

2. MAGNETIC (1X)
a. General Application of Magnetic Data
SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
1. Objectives
2. Structural Interpretation
a. Data Preparation
b. Well Seismic Ties
c. Horizon Picking
d. Horizon Tracing and Fault Identification
e. Horizon Reading and Posting
f. Fault Reconstruction
g. Contouring
h. Reporting
3. Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation
4. Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator
 OBJECTIVES
1. Interpreting the geological
structure, the elements
and the processes of
occurrence as well as the
factors that influenced
them.
2. Provide recommendation
of prospective area and
risk contained therein.
Remainder of this Course

Seismic Interpretation and Beyond …

 Develop a Geologic Framework

 Apply the Geologic Framework to
Prospecting (Exploration)

Given our time constraints, we will only be able to

look at a subset of the concepts, procedures and
tools that geologist and geophysicists use in the
exploration phase of the oil & gas industry

FWS 04
Courtesy of ExxonMobil L 9 – Overview Interpretation
Exploration’s Task

Identify
Opportunities Capture
Prime Areas
Acquire
Seismic Data Drill
Process Wildcats
Seismic Data
Interpret
Failure Success
Seismic Data
Assess Confirmation
Prospects Well

Uneconomic Success

To Development
Drop
Or Production
Prospect
FWS 04
Courtesy of ExxonMobil L 9 – Overview Interpretation
Geologic Framework
Using all available data (wells, seismic, outcrop,
regional studies, gravity, magnetics, etc.) build a
framework of present-day structure and stratigraphy
 Structural Interpretation
• Faults & Folds
• Subsidence & Uplift
• Structural Trends
• Structural Features

 Stratigraphic Interpretation
• Unconformities
• Stratal Packages
• Environments / Facies / Lithologies
• Ages

FWS 04
Courtesy of ExxonMobil L 9 – Overview Interpretation
FWS 04
Applying the Framework for Prospecting

1. Data Analysis
• Present-day conditions - How things are now
• Basin reconstruction - How things evolved

2. Prospect Elements
• Individual elements: Source, Migration, Reservoir, Trap,
Seal
• Favorable juxtaposition of all elements

3. Prospect Assessment
• Likely HC volumes in the success case
• Risking - How likely is the success case?

FWS 04
Courtesy of ExxonMobil L 9 – Overview Interpretation
SEISMIC INTERPRETATION AND
PETROLEUM SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Petroleum
• Structural System • Geological
Identification
• Stratigraphic • Source Rock Risk
Identification • Reservoir • Project
• Facies Interpretation • Traps and Seals Economic
• Migration
Geology
Prospects
Model
SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Structural and Stratigraphic Interpretations
Seismic Modeling

Seismic Geology
Sections
Interpretation Model

Seismic section Well log Synthetic Geology Model Facies model Structure & Facies map
STRUCTURAL SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
WORK FLOW

Interpretation
• Seismic section • Prospects
• Base map
• Well Log
• Well Seismic Tie Area
• Horizon Picking
• Velocity Data • Horizon Tracing • Project
•
• Mistie Analysis Faults Identification and
reconstruction
Economic
• Horizon reading and posting
Data • Contouring
Report
Preparation
DATA PREPARATION
Persiapan

Beberapa tahapan dalam interpretasi data seismic yang harus diikuti :

Peta Dasar dan Penampang seismik
Peta Dasar mencakup :
•Posisi arah lintasan seismic dan perpotongan antar lintasan seismic.
•Koordinat, sistim koordinat yg digunakan
•Nama lintasan dan nomer shot point (titik tembak).
•Skala peta (tegantung tujuan), arah utara/mata angin
•Posisi sumur
•Culture dan legend/ keterangan.

Penampang Seismik :
•bentuk stack migrasi dan umumnya adalah PSTM .
•Skala umumnya horisontal 1 : 20 000 dan vertikal 1 cm = 100 msec.
•Pada penampang seismik juga memuat informasi tentang :
bagian atas : data kecepatan, nomer SP, Trace , posisi crossing line, topografi,
shot hole depth
bagian samping (kanan) : nama lintasan, nomer SP dan status processing,
informasi data acquisition, informasi processing dan sekuennya, peta indeks
Data Sumur

• Final log, untuk mengetahui puncak formasi atau lapisan tertentu sebagai
marker atau zona-zona mengandung HK (DST, UKL).
• Log sonic dan densitas, digunakan untuk membuat sintetik seismogram untuk
seismic well tie
• WVS/VSP, untuk mengetahui kecepatan rata-rata tiap interval atau
menkonversi data kedalaman ke data waktu atau sebaliknya, dan sebagai
kalibrasi synthetic seismogram

Data geologi

• Geologi permukaan, peta geologi untuk membantu menentukan batas litologi

dengan horizon tertentu, analisis stratigrafis, hubungan fasies (mengetahui
kondisi geologi regional daerah setempat ).
• Citra satelit, berupa landsat, spot dsb, digunakan menentukan pola/ kelurusan
struktur permukaan dan penyebaran batuan (geologi regional).
• Data seismic survey terdahulu (sebelumnya), akan membantu interpretasi
karena akan menambah data asal mempunyai kualitas yang memadai.
Verifikasi

• data navigasi,
• data sumur dan data lainnya yang terkait. (dapat dikerjakan
pada saat loading data ke workstation)
• kesesuaian penempatan lintasan-lintasan seismic ataupun
penempatan inline dan crossline dari suatu set data
seismic,
• penomoran SP/CDP ataupun penomoran inline/crossline
• arah-arah lintasan , dan apakah arah dari lintasan- lintasan
tersebut sudah sesuai berdasarkan pengetahuan geologi
daerah
setempat
• kesesuaian nama lintasan seimik baik antara header data,
data
seismik tersebut maupun dalam peta dasar.
• pastikan sistim koordinat yang digunakan.
Lecture 7

Synthetic Trace

Time (ms)
Depth

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 17
Objectives of Well-Seismic Ties

• Well-seismic ties allow well data,

measured in units of depth, to be
compared to seismic data, Synthetic Trace
measured in units of time

• This allows us to relate horizon tops

identified in a well with specific
reflections on the seismic section

• We use sonic and density well logs

to generate a synthetic seismic
trace

• The synthetic trace is compared to

the real seismic data collected near
the well location

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 18
Measurements In Time and In Depth

Seismic - Time Units Log - Depth Units

Surface SHOT REC’R

Kelly Bushing
Elevation
Elevation

Vertical depth
Base of
Weathering
Two-way time

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 19
Comparison of Seismic and Well Data

Seismic Data Well Data

• Samples area and volume • Samples point along well bore
• Low frequency 5 - 60 Hz • High frequency, 10,000 - 20,000 Hz
• Vertical resolution 15 - 100 m • Vertical resolution 2 cm - 2 m
• Horizontal resolution 150 - 1000 m • Horizontal resolution 0.5 cm - 6 m
• Measures seismic amplitude, • Measures vertical velocity, density,
phase, continuity, horizontal & resistivity, radioactivity, SP, rock
vertical velocities and fluid properties from cores
• Time measurement • Depth measurement
100 m

100 m

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 20
Seismic-Well Tie Flow-Chart

Seismic Data Real Seismic

Data Processing
Trace

Estimate
Pulse

External Well -
Well -
Pulse Seismic Tie
Seismic Tie

Well Data Seismic Synthetic Seismic

Data Processing Modeling Trace

Check Shots/
Time Depth
Information

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 21
Check Shot Data

Check shots measure the vertical

one-way time from surface to
Seismic Shot
various depths (geophone
positions) within the well

Depth
– Used to determine start time of
top of well-log curves

– Used to calibrate the

Borehole
relationship between well
Geophone
depths and times calculated
from a sonic log

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 22
 The Modeling Process

Reflection
Lithology Velocity Density Impedance Wavelet Synthetic
Coefficients

Shale

  
Sand

Shale
x = *
Sand

Shale

• We ‘block’ the velocity (sonic) and density logs and compute an impedance
‘log’
• We calculate the reflection coefficients at the step-changes in impedance
• We convolve our pulse with the RC series to get individual wavelets
• Each RC generates a wavelet whose amplitude is proportional to the RC
• We sum the individual wavelets to get the synthetic seismic trace

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 23
SYNTHETIC SEISMOGRAM
Our Example
Well A

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 25
Tying Synthetic to Seismic Data

n Position synthetic trace on seismic line.

Synthetic Trace
– Project synthetic along structural or
stratigraphic strike if well is off line

n Reference datum of synthetic to seismic

data (usually ground level or seismic
datum)

Time (ms)
– Without check shots estimate start time
of first bed

n Shift synthetic in time to get the best

character tie
– Use stratigraphic info on detailed plot
to help
– determine the best fit.

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 26
Assumptions for Synthetic Well Ties

Seismic Data Synthetic Seismograms

– Noise free – Blocked logs representative
of the earth sampled by the
– No multiples seismic data
– Relative amplitudes – Normal incidence reflection
are preserved coefficients
– Zero-offset section – Multiples ignored
– No transmission losses or
absorption
– Isotropic medium (vertical
and horizontal velocities are
equal)

FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 27
Common Pitfalls

n Error in well or seismic line location

n Log data quality
– washout zones, drilling-fluid invasion effects
n Seismic data quality
– noise, multiples, amplitude gain, migration, etc
n Incorrect pulse
– Polarity, frequency, and phase
– Try a different pulse; use extracted pulse
n Incorrect 1-D model
– Blocked logs, checkshots need further editing
– Incorrect start time or improper datuming
– Amplitude-Versus-Offset effects
– Bed tuning
n 3-D effects not fully captured by seismic or well data
FWSchroeder
Courtesy of ExxonMobil ‘06
L 7 – Well-Seismic 28
DATA INTERPRETATION
Tahap : Penarikan horizon /picking

Setelah selesai persiapan, berikutnya adalah

• Memadukan data yang tersedia.
• Membuat looping /composite line untuk memastikan kondisi data
tersebut dan memeriksa ada tidaknya mistie.

Pemilihan horizon :
didasarkan pada : kontinuitas refleksi, amplitude yang mudah dikenal,
sifat-sifat khusus yang mewakili atau horizon yang ekwivalen dengan
lapisan produktif.

Pengikatan data seismik dengan synthetic seismogram dari data sumur

yang dijadikan acuan. Data sonic/ densitas serta data VSP/Checkshoot
adalah dasar dalam pembuatan synthetic seismogram.

Penentuan top-top lapisan/reservoir, top-top formasi pada penampang

seismik berdasarkan data ikatan sumur acuan dan dilakukan penarikan
horison dari lapisan-lapisan yang akan diinterpretasikan mulai dari
lintasan yang diikatkan ke sumur acuan.
Pemetaan

Persiapan Pemetaan

Sebelum memetakan, cek ulang :

• lintasan yang melewati sumur apakah korelasi seismic dan data sumur sesuai
(matching),
• pastikan pada perpotongan antar lintasan, horizon ataupun sesarnya sudah “tie”.
• Base map/peta dasar sudah dilengkapi lintasan dan nomer SPnya.
• Kwalitas mapping tergantung pada ketelitian interpretasi

Pembacaan / Gridding

• Pembacaan /gridding untuk mengetahui harga dan posisi horizon atau fault yang
akan dipetakan , dengan syarat seluruh data seismic sudah cocok (tie).
• Hasil pembacaan kemudian di plot pada peta dasar . Dalam beberapa kasus
apabila lintasan seismic yang terdapat pada peta dasar masih jarang (jarak antar
lintasannya jauh) maka harga pada posisi antar lintasan akan diinterpolasi .
Mistie

Mistie adalah perbedaan waktu refleksi pada horizon dan posisi yang
sama antara dua penampang seismic yang berpotongan.
Mistie antara 1 - 10 msec, dapat diabaikan untuk kepentingan pemetaan
regional (kontur intervalnya 20 - 50 msec),
Untuk pemetaan detail dengan interval kontur 5 - 10 msec, mistie diatas
5 msec harus dikoreksi.

Mistie ini dapat terjadi akibat adanya:

• Kesalahan dalam interpretasi
• Kesalahan dalam prosesing (perbedaan kecepatan, koreksi statik,
filtering dll)
• Migrasi akibat geometri dari dipping/kemiringan data, biasanya
terdapat pada ujung lintasan dan sering disebut dengan “end of line
effect”.
• Kesalahan posisioning
• Adanya perbedaan dalam parameter akusisi.
• Pada pemetaan manual, diakibatkan kesalahan dalam
pembacaan/gridding.
Contouring
Sebelum penggambaran garis kontur,

• Plotting posisi sesar (fault), pola sesar dan

simbolnya harus dilakukan terlibih dulu.

• Pemetaan ini adalah contouring yaitu titik titik

harga tersebut dapat dikontur dengan interval
atau jarak antar kontur yang disesuaikan
dengan skala peta (1/2000 x skala peta) atau
disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan
Lecture 10

Hor. 1

Hor. 2

Hor. 3

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Structural Analysis - What is it?
The analysis of all of the significant processes that
formed a basin and deformed its sedimentary fill
from basin-scale processes (e.g., plate tectonics)
to centimeter-scale processes (e.g., fracturing)

Some Major Elements:

• Basin Formation
• Fault Network Mapping
• Stratigraphic Deformation
• Present-Day Trap Definition
• Timing of Trap Development

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Role of Seismic Interpretation

• Identify and map faults, folds, uplifts, and

other structural elements
• Interpret structural settings and structural
styles
• Insure 3D geometric consistency in an
interpretation - is it structurally valid?
• Determine timing relationships, especially
the timing of trap formation
• Check if the interpretation is admissibility

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

The STRENGTHS of Seismic Data

• Inherently 3-D (even if a 2-D grid)

• Able to image trap-scale structures
• Able to image stratigraphy, to identify
reservoir, seal, and for use as structural
markers, e. g. to constrain fault offsets
• Provides a 3-D context for understanding
other data
– surface geology
– well data
– potential field data

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

The WEAKNESSES of Seismic Data

• Limited resolution: can’t resolve “small”

features
• Steep dips can be difficult to image
• Acquisition can be difficult, e. g. in areas of:
variable topography, variable surface geology,
or “hard” water bottom
• Vertical axis is typically (migrated) time, not
depth
– Velocity variations distort geometries
• Display scales are commonly not V:H=1:1,
which results in distortions of geometries
• Typically we can’t “see” hydrocarbons

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Basic Observations: Profile View

We can recognize moderate- to large-scale

faults on seismic profiles by:
• Termination of reflections
• Offset in stratigraphic markers
• Abrupt changes in dip
• Abrupt changes in seismic patterns
• Fault plane reflections
• Associated folding or sag
• Discontinuities

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Fault Identification: Profile Views

A
A B C

B N S W E
C

Faults must tie on

lines that intersect tie
or the interpretation
is not internally
consistent

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Interpreting Faults

Structural Structural
Observations Concepts

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Interpreting Faults

Structural Structural
Observations Concepts
• Fault segments on seismic lines • Tectonic Setting
• Fault plane orientation – Divergent zones
• Sense of motion – Convergent zones
• Magnitude of offset – Strike-slip zones
• Range of depths – Mobile substrate
• Relative timing • How Structures Evolve
– when faults moved – Fault-bend folds
– when structures grew – Fault-propagation folds
– Salt movement
– etc.

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Structural Styles Matrix

CONTRAC- UPLIFT,
EXTENSION LATERAL
TION SUBSIDENCE

extensional contractional strike-slip

BASEMENT basement
fault fault or wrench
INVOLVED warps
blocks blocks faulting

BASEMENT detached
fold-and- tear faults salt, shale
DETACHED normal
thrust belts (detached) diapirism
faulting

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Extensional Faults

basement involved basement detached

1 mile

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

Diapirs Can Provide Good Traps

Salt and shale layers

can become mobile
when subjected to
differential loading

Imaging beneath salt is

very difficult, but the
rewards can be great!

Many oil and gas fields

have been found
associated with salt &
shale diapirs

Courtesy of ExxonMobil FWS 04 L 10 – Structural Analysis

REPORTING
Cakupan pembahasan struktur

• Pembahasan struktur geologi pada eksplorasi hidrokarbon

mengharuskan kita untuk menganalisa hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan:
- Geometry : menyangkut bentuk, ukuran, arah, pola suatu
struktur
- Genesa : meliputi interpretasi mekanisme pembentukan, arah
gaya pembentukanya, urutannya
- Potensi menjadi perangkap hidrokarbon.

• Hasilnya berupa peta: harus jelas menginformasikan seperti nilai

kontur, interval kontur, arah bidang sesar, arah pergerakan
sesar, sifat sesar dll.
 Pembentukan graben

• Graben menjadi unsur yang sangat penting dalam

pembentukan daerah dapur hidrokarbon. Isolated sediment
biasanya sangat bagus sebagai dapur hidrokarbon sebagai
produk endapan lacustrine.
• Dalam model yang dibuat dari material lumpur yang
dilengkungkan seperti busur menunjukkan deformasi dengan
membentuk graben.
• Model lain menunjukkan bahwa graben dapat terbentuk akibat
gaya tensional atau terjadinya rifting.
• Syntesa lainnya adalah adanya akibat arus konveksi dari
dalam bumi yang menyebabkan terjadinya seri sesar listrik
membentuk graben.
 Karakter regime tensional
• Sesar normal dengan sudut
kemiringan besar ( + 600 )
• Domino style
• Listric normal faulting
• Sesar utama biasanya diikuti sesar
antitetik
 Karakter regime kompresi

• Thrust fault dengan Basement involve

• Thin skin deformation
• Inconsistency deformation, perbedaan
pertumbuhan pensesaran.
• Bentuk thrust di pengaruhi oleh kemiringan
bidang pergeseran, kedalaman sesar, stratigrafi
 Karakter strike-slip fault
• Kondisinya cenderung komplek
• Perubahan orientasi komponen struktur
sangat menonjol
• Pola en-echelon fold, en-echelon tension
fracture sering dijumpai
• Kemenerusan/releasing bend
• Pembentukan pull-apart
 15’
GERAGAI

30’
00’
TUNGKAL

103°

103°
DEEP

103°
DEEP
LEGEND:
TIGA PULUH
HIGH TAF >300m
A.MENDAHARA-1 TIUNG-1 GERAGAI-1

TAF 100-300m
TIUNG-2
SOGO-1

SPT-B
SPT-B
MANIS
TAF <100m
MATA-1
MRT-A
MRT-B

TAF absent

AAB-1
BETUNG-1
Igneous rock
BKP-A
BKP-B
HARI-1

RCD-B
RCD-A SG-5
GEGER
KALONG-1 M-1 P-2
P-1 KT-3
MERSAM-1

MUARA
SABAK-1
P-1A
N-1

S.MEDAK-1

MERANG-1

JANGGA-1

BL-2

G-1 SIAPO -1

KALIBERAU-5 NIKAM -1
KUKU
LAMBAR-1
AWS
BAKUNG-1
0 5 15 km
00’
30’

15’
45’

45’
30’
15’

TUNGKAL-1
103°

104°

104°
103°

104°
104°
103°
Model Penampang seismik pada sesar naik
 Pitfalls in Seismic Interpretation

In doing seismic interpretation, it must be remembered, it still contains noises

which is any reflection unrelated to geology objects.
Common noises which are multiples, diffraction and velocity anomaly. This
noises can act as pitfalls for interpreter, and thus need to be recognized.

1.Multiple

Multiple occurs when the wavefront is reflected more than one time.

Data acquisition parameters can be designed to minimize multiple, mainly by

using stacking and deconvolution technique
However, multiple still often appear in the record even though the data have been
intensively processed
 source geophone
  surface

2t Seismic reflector

1st multiple
t = two way time

Figure 1. Illustration of simple multiple

REFLECTION

LONG PATH
LONG PATH

MULTIPLE
MULTIPLE
PRIMARY

SURFACE
PEG LEG GHOST GHOST

reflector
Seismic
Figure 2. General type of multiple
 WBM
sideswipe

WBM

Figure 5. Examples of multiple : WB – water bottom multiple, IBM-interbed multiple and sideswide
2.Diffraction

Diffraction occurs due to the sharp change of reflector plane geometry, for
examples due to the faults, instrusion, karst, etc (Figure 9). The sharp plane
refract energy to all direction and recorded as hyperbolic trace with diffraction
source as its apex. The position of fault plane can be estimated by joining the
apexes (Figure 10).

Even though diffraction can be minimized using migration technique, they still
appear in seismic records and interfere interpretation.
 Geophone Source
    ☼

Diffraction from fault

Assumed mid-point locationst Sketch showing a diffraction from a fault.

The hyperbolic form of diffractions arises
from the assumption made by the CMP
method that reflections arise from mid-
point locations between the source and
geophone

Figure 9 . Illustration of diffraction effect due to fault plane (Badley, 1985)

(a)

(b)
Figure 10d. Seismic examples of a burried focus. (a) Stacked section showing the bow-tie effect.
(b) Migrated section, revealing the true synclinal shape of the reflector (courtesy Norsk Hydro)
3.Velocity Efect

Changes of rock properties, for instances due to formation thickness and facies
can create velocity change. The change can give distortion between the stacked
time section and the real thickness and depth.

Down-dip apparent thinning occurs due to the increasing interval velocity with
depth for a constant thickness bed. This makes the bed become thinner to the
depth in time section (Figure 11). Apparent thinning can also accur along fault
plane due to the change of rock velocity across the fault plane (Figure 12).

Velocity anomaly also often occurs beneath low-angle dip fault plane like in the
case of thrust and lystric normal fault because of the lateral velocity change due
to the faulting (Figure 13-14)

Pull-up velocity anomaly will also develop under salt structure, and high-
velocity carbonate or channel (Fig.15-17). On the contrary, push down velocity
anomaly can occur beneath shale diapir or carbonates with lower velocity than
the surroundings (Figure 18). Extreme change of water depth can also cause
severe velocity anomaly (Figure 19).
 SEISMIC SECTION SEISMIC SECTION

SEISMIC SECTION SEISMIC SECTION

Figure 18. Velocity anomaly beneath carbonate reef. (a) and (b) Pull-up.
(c) and (d) pull-down (Badley, 1985)
 surface

The effect of increasing velocifty with

depth on the seismic expression of a
Depth dipping unit.
(a) (a) Geological model of a thick dipping
sandstone unit. The sandstone ’ s
interval velocity increases with depth
due to diagenesis, but its thickness
remains constant.
(b) Seismic expression : The sandstone
unit appears to thin. It takes less
time for the seismic signal to travel
Time Interval thins in time through the sandstone as its interval
(b) velocity increase.

Figure 11. Apparent bed thinning due to velocity effect (Badley, 1985)
 Downbending of reflections into a
V1 fault. This can occur when low-
V1 velocity material is faulted by a
dipping fault. In the zone beneath the
V2
fault plane, downbending of reflections
V2 can occur due to the lower velocities
(and, there-for, longer traveltimes) in
V3 lower-velocity downthrown rocks.
V3

V = Velocity
V3>V2>V1

Downbending
of reflection

Figure 12. Apparent downbending effect due to the velocity effect (Badley, 1985)
Direct Hydrocarbon Indicator
(DHI)