A sensor is a device, which responds to an input

quantity by generating a functionally related

output usually in the form of an electrical or
optical signals.
Transducer: A device which converts 1 form of
energy into another.
Actuator :a device that generates a signal or stimulus.
 Types of Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouples
 (RTDs)
 Thermistors
 Infrared Sensors
 Integrated circuits
sensors
 Thermocouples
• Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically
consists of two wires of different metals alloys that are crimped
together.
• One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the
reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring (Hot)
junction.
• When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage
is developed across the junction which is used to measure the
temperature sensor as shown below.
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
RTD’s are precision temperature sensors made from high-purity
conducting metals such as platinum, copper or nickel wound into a coil
and whose electrical resistance changes as a function of temperature.
How do RTDs work?
• RTD’s resistance increase, the temperature increases .

• Controller measures resistance value and converts to temperature

(reading, fairly linear relationship)

• Unlike thermocouple, no electrical signal is generated.

• Controller measures resistance by passing current through RTD.

• Use a base resistance value (ex: for Platinum, value of 100 ohms at 0oC
(32oF)
 Thermistors
The Thermistor : THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR.
• A thermistor is a special type of resistor which changes its physical resistance when
exposed to changes in temperature.

• Most of the Thermistor’s have a Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance

or (NTC), that is their resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the
temperature.

• Thermistors with Positive Temperature Coefficient, (PTC), in that their resistance value
goes UP with an increase in temperature.

• Thermistors are constructed from a ceramic type semiconductor material (using metal
oxide technology such as manganese, cobalt and nickel, etc.) which is generally
formed into small pressed discs or balls which are hermetically sealed to give a
relatively fast response to any changes in temperature.

• About -45°C - 150°C

 Infrared Sensors
• An infrared sensor intercepts a portion of the infrared energy radiated by an
object.
• The design essentially consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal
radiation on to a detector, which converts the radiant power to an electrical
signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after being compensated
for ambient temperature.
• This permits temperature measurement from a distance without contact with
the object to be measured.
• A non-contact infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature
under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe-type sensors
cannot be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons.
 Integrated circuits Temperature sensors
• An IC Temperature Sensor is a two terminal integrated circuit temperature
transducer that produces an output current proportional to absolute
temperature. The sensor package is small with a low thermal mass and a
fast response time. The most common temperature range is 55 to 150°C (-
58 to 302°F). The solid state sensor output can be analog or digital.
Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Motion sensors

• The term ‘Motion sensors’ refers to any kind of sensing system

which is used to detect motion; motion of any object or
motion of human beings.
• Motion sensors are commonly used in security systems as
triggers for automatic lights or remote alarms and similar
applications.

There are two basic types of motion sensors:

• Active Sensors
• Passive Sensors

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Active sensors
• Active sensors emit a signal, typically an burst of (light, microwaves or
sound) waves which is reflected by the surroundings.

• The reflected signal is received by the sensor and takes necessary action.

• When something moves within the area of an active motion sensor, the
change in signal that is reflected to the sensor activates the system.
• The active sensor is one of the most common and reliable sensors used in
a security system.
• For example, when an automatic faucet senses hands underneath it, a
device is signaled to run water in the sink.

1/7/2018
 Passive sensor
• Passive sensors are a type of motion sensor that do not emit a
signal, but instead detect infrared radiation around the sensor.
• As this sensor detects temperature differences, it is well suited to
detecting the motion of people by their body temperature.
• When a person or animal moves through the area, heat from the
movement is detected by the sensor, which then activates the
system to which it is connected
 Use as a human detection sensor to automatically turn lights on
when a person is present in a room and to turn them off when
nobody is there.
 Motion detection
Motion detection is the process of detecting a change in position of an object
relative to its surroundings or the change in the surroundings relative to
an object.

Motion can be detected by:

• Infrared (Passive and active sensors)
• Optics (video and camera systems)
• Radio Frequency Energy (radar, microwave motion detection)
• Sound (microphones and acoustic sensors)
• Vibration (seismic sensors)

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Other Types of Motion Sensors
Micro Wave (MW): Sends out microwave pulses and measures the reflection off a
moving object. They cover a larger area than infrared sensors, but they are vulnerable
to electrical interference and are more expensive.
Dual Technology Motion Sensors: Motion sensors can have combined features
in an attempt to reduce false alarms. For example, a passive infrared (PIR) sensor
could be combined with a microwave sensor. Since each operates in different areas
of the spectrum, and one is passive and one is active, Dual Technology motion
sensors are not as likely as other types to cause false alarms, because in order for
the alarm to be triggered, both sensors have to be tripped.
Area Reflective Type: Emits infrared rays from an LED. Using the
reflection of those rays, the sensor measures the distance to the person or
object and detects if the object is within the designated area
Ultrasonic: Sends out pulses of ultrasonic waves and measures the reflection off
a moving object.

Vibration: Detects vibration. These can be purchased or easily made at home. A

homemade vibration sensor uses a small mass on a lever, which is activated by a
switch to an alarm when it vibrates. Homemade motion sensors can work, but
they can also be unreliable.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 CELL PHONES WITH MOTION SENSORS
• The motion sensor used in
mobile phones is accelerometer
which is a complex motion sensor.

• It translates motion into action on

the screen.

• Accelerometers are used in tablet

computers and digital cameras so
that images on screens are always
displayed upright.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Rotary Encoder?
A rotary encoder, also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device
that converts the angular position or motion of a shaft or axle to an analog or
digital signal.

A rotary encoder uses a slotted wheel with a single LED/ photo-detector pair
to generate pulses as the wheel turns.

There are two types of rotary encoders: Incremental and Absolute

Type

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Incremental (relative) Rotary Encoder

• Incremental signals provide a series of high and low waves which indicate movement
from one position to the next; there is no special indication provided by the encoder to
show the specific position, only an indication that the position has changed. They are
devices that provide a series of periodic signals in the form of pulses due to mechanical
motion of shaft revolution.

 Speed of an object can be measured by counting the pulses for a period of time. To
calculate angle or the distance covered, pulses are counted starting from a reference point.

How Incremental Rotary Encoder works?

The LED emits light beam which passes

through a transparent disk patterned
with opaque lines.

 When the photo sensor receives the

light beam, it produces a sinusoidal
wave form, which is transformed into a
square wave or pulse train.

 This pulse signal is then sent to the

counter or controller which will then
send the signal to produce the desired
function.
Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Absolute Rotary Encoder

Absolute Rotary Encoder

 Absolute encoders use a unique "word" for each position, meaning that an
absolute encoder provides both the indication that the position has changed
and an indication of the absolute position of the encoder.

 Provides information in the form of unique output for every movement of

the shaft rotation (in Binary, BCD or Gray Code).

 Uses gray code to represent each position.

 Advantage over incremental encoder => Position is maintained after a

power-down. The absolute position is recovered upon power-up without
requiring a home cycle or any shaft rotation.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 What is an Image Sensor?
• An Image Sensor is a photosensitive device that converts light signals into digital signals
(colours). It uses film to capture and store an image.

• Image sensors contain millions of photosensitive diodes known as photosites.

• When you take a picture, the camera's shutter opens briefly and each photo site on the
image sensor records the brightness of the light that falls on it by accumulating photons.
The more light that hits a photo site, the more photons it records.
• The brightness recorded by each photosite is then stored as a set of numbers (digital
numbers) that can then be used to set the color and brightness of a single pixel on the
screen or ink on the printed page to reconstruct the image.

An image sensor is typically of two types:

1. Charged Coupled Device (CCD)

2. Complementary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor (CMOS)
Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 What is CCD?
• Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) are silicon-based integrated
circuits consisting of a dense matrix of photodiodes that
operate by converting light energy in the form of photons into
an electronic charge.

• Electrons generated by the interaction of photons with silicon

atoms are stored in a potential well and can subsequently be
transferred across the chip through registers and output to an
amplifier.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 What is CMOS?
• “CMOS" refers to both a particular style of digital circuitry design, and the
family of processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits
(chips).

• CMOS circuitry dissipates less power when static, and is denser than other
implementations having the same functionality.

• CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–

semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and
other digital circuits found in computers, telecommunications equipment, and
signal processing equipment.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Proximity Sensors
• They are used to sense the proximity of an object relative to
another object. They usually provide a on or off signal
indicating the presence or absence of an object.

Types of proximity sensors

• Inductive proximity sensor
• Capacitive proximity sensor
• photoelectric proximity sensor
• Magnetic proximity sensors

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Inductance and capacitive Proximity Sensor:
• The operating principle is based on a high frequency oscillator that creates
a field in the close surroundings of the sensing surface.
• The presence of a metallic object (inductive) or any material (capacitive) in
the operating area causes a change of the oscillation amplitude.
• The rise or fall of such oscillation is identified by a threshold circuit that
changes the output state of the sensor.
• The operating distance of the sensor depends on the actuator's shape and
size and is strictly linked to the nature of the material (Table 1 & Table 2.).
• A screw placed on the back of the capacitive sensor allows regulation of
the operating distance.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 Photoelectric proximity sensors
These sensors use light sensitive elements to detect objects and are made up of an emitter
(light source) and a receiver. The proximity of a moving object interrupts the light beam
causing the voltage level to change
Three types of photoelectric sensors are available.
Direct Reflection - emitter and receiver are housed together and uses the light reflected
directly off the object for detection.
Reflection with Reflector - emitter and receiver are housed together and requires a
reflector. An object is detected when it interrupts the light beam between the sensor and
reflector.
Thru Beam - emitter and receiver are housed separately and detects an object when it
interrupts the light beam between the emitter and receiver.

hall effect proximity sensors

Hall effect voltage is produced when a current-carrying conductor is exposed

to a transverse magnetic field. The voltage is proportional to transverse distance between
the hall effect sensor and an object in its proximity.

Temperature sensors Motion sensors Rotary sensors Image sensors Proximity sensors
 How the Hall Effect Sensors work
• Presence of magnetic field Depiction principle of the Hall
deflects electrons flowing Effect
through conductive material

• As electrons move to one end of

conductive material:
– Potential is developed in direction
perpendicular to gross current flow
– Potential indicates strength of
magnetic field
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Sampling – converts the continuous signal into a series of discrete
analog signals at periodic intervals
Quantization – each discrete analog is converted into one of a
finite number of (previously defined) discrete amplitude
levels
Encoding – discrete amplitude levels are converted into digital
code

Variable Analogue Signal

Discrete
1001 1101 0101
Variables

Time
 Hardware Devices in
Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Transformation Process

Continuous
Variable
Sensors
& Transducer
Multiplexer

Amplifer Signal
Digital Analog Conditioner
Computer Digital
Converter
Other Signals