Assemblers

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 Fundamental Functions
• Generate machine language
– Translate mnemonic operation codes to machine
code
• Assign addresses to symbolic labels used by
the programmer

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 Additional Functions
• Generate an image of what memory must look
like for the program to be executed.
• Interpret assembler directives (Pseudo-
Instructions)
– They provide instructions to the assembler
– They do not translate into machine code
– They might affect the object code

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 Input / Output
• Input Assembly Code
• Output
– Assembly Listing
– Object Code
• Intermediate files
– Assembly Listing
– LOCCTR
– Instruction Length
– Error Flags
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 Input

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 Output/ Assembly Listing

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 Output
Record Type Column Content
1 Record Type = 1
2-3 Byte Count
1
4-7 The execution start address (Hex)
8-9 Check Sum (CS)
1 Record Type = 2
2-3 Byte Count
4-7 The load address for the instruction/data
2 (Hex)
8-57 The code to be loaded in Hex
58-59 Check Sum (CS)

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 Object Code

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 Design Approach
• One Pass: Line by Line
– forward reference?
• Two Passes:
– Pass 1
– Pass2
• Intermediate files

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 One-Pass Assembler
• The main problem is forward reference.
• Eliminating forward reference
– Simply ask the programmer to define variables
before using them.
• However, ?!
– Backward jumps is too restrictive.
– Forward jumps (Subroutine calls, Loops)

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 Input

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 Output/ Assembly Listing

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 Output Object Code
Record Type Column Content
1 Record Type = 1
2-3 Byte Count
1
4-7 The execution start address (Hex)
8-9 Check Sum (CS)
1 Record Type = 2
2-3 Byte Count
4-7 The load address for the instruction/data
2 (Hex)
8-57 The code to be loaded in Hex
58-59 Check Sum (CS)

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 Example

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 Example

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 Forward Reference
• For any symbol that has not yet been defined
1. omit the address translation
2. insert the symbol into SYMTAB, and mark this
symbol undefined
3. the address that refers to the undefined symbol is
added to a list of forward references associated
with the symbol table entry
4. when the definition for a symbol is encountered,
the proper address for the symbol is then inserted
into any instructions previous generated according
to the forward reference list
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 Load-and-go Assembler (Cont.)
• At the end of the program
– any SYMTAB entries that are still marked with *
indicate undefined symbols
– search SYMTAB for the symbol named in the END
statement and jump to this location to begin
execution
• The actual starting address must be specified
at assembly time

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 Processing Example

After scanning line 40

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 Processing Example

After scanning line 160

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 Two Passes
• Pass 1
– Validate Opcodes
– Assign addresses to all statements in the program
– Scan the source for labels and save their values
– Perform some processing of assembler directives
• Determine the length of areas defined by DC, DS
• Pass 2
– Translate/assemble the instructions
– Generate Data Values defined by DC
– Process the rest of the assembler directives
– Write the Object Code
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and Assembly Listing
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 Data Structures
• Operation Code Table (OPTAB)
– Opcode, Instruction format, and length
– Pass 1: Validate opcodes
– Pass2: Assemble instructions
• Symbol Table (SYMTAB)
– Label name and value, error flags
– Pass 1: Created!
– Lookup symbols to insert in assembled instr.
• Location Counter
– Initialed to the Org or End
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 A Simple Two Pass Assembler
Implementation

Source READ (Label, opcode, operand)

program

Pass 1 Pass 2 Object

codes

OPTAB SYMTAB SYMTAB

Mnemonic and Label and address Label and address

opcode mappings mappings created mappings are referenced
are referenced

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 Hash Tables
• OPTAB is static (access)
– Retrieval efficiency
– Key : Mnemonic operation
• SYMTAB (add, access)
– Insertion and Retrieval efficiency
– Key: Label Name
• LOOP1, LOOP2, LOOP3…, A, X, Y, Z…

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 OPTAB (operation code table)
• Content
– The mapping between mnemonic and machine code. Also
include the instruction format, available addressing
modes, and length information.
• Characteristic
– Static table. The content will never change.
• Implementation
– Array or hash table. Because the content will never
change, we can optimize its search speed.
• In pass 1, OPTAB is used to look up and validate
mnemonics in the source program.
• In pass 2, OPTAB is used to translate mnemonics to
machine instructions.
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 Symbol Table (SYMTAB)
• Content
– Include the label name and value (address) for each label
in the source program.
– Include type and length information (e.g., int64)
– With flag to indicate errors (e.g., a symbol defined in two
places)
• Characteristic
– Dynamic table (I.e., symbols may be inserted, deleted, or
searched in the table)
• Implementation
– Hash table can be used to speed up search
– Because variable names may be very similar (e.g., LOOP1,
LOOP2), the selected hash function must perform well
with such non-random keys.
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 Pass 1 Pseudo Code

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 Pass 1

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 Pass 1

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 Pass 2 Pseudo Code

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 Pass 2

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 Pass 2

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