Counselling Theories: Understand Construct of Theories and Its Application On Practise

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The document discusses different counseling theories including psychoanalysis, client-centered, rational emotive behavior therapy, behaviorism, reality therapy and gestalt. It also covers concepts like the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, levels of awareness and convergence across theories.

Theories discussed include psychoanalysis, client-centered therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy, behaviorism, reality therapy and gestalt.

Key points that are common across theories include combating demoralization, the therapeutic process, and attempting to solve common problems.

COUNSELLING THEORIES

OBJECTIVE:
UNDERSTAND CONSTRUCT OF
THEORIES AND ITS APPLICATION ON
PRACTISE
WHAT IS A THEORY
Patterson (1986), theory is a;
(a) Set of stated assumption regarding a certain
field
(b) Set of definitions of the ideas and concepts in
the theory
(c) Concepts that bear certain relationship to
one another
(d) Hypothesis constructed from these
assumptions, definitions and relationships
Continuum of theories
Frank Parsons
1909-1940s: developing better means of
assessing people aptitudes and interest
Directive counselling heavily on advising and
also known as trait-factor
1942 Carl Rogers: Non-directive as helper is
not adviser
Directive vs non-directive
Key point in different theories
Nature of human being
Basic assumptions
Goals
Key concept/ construct
Personality/ development
Adaptive/ maladaptive behaviour
Learning process/ change
Techniques
Teori dalam Kaunseling
1. Teori Psikoanalisis
2. Teori Pemusatan Klien
3. Teori Terapi Rational Emotif
4. Teori Tingkahlaku
5. Terapi Realiti
6. Teori Gestalt
PSYCHOANALYSIS THEORY
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Human beings are basically determined by psychic
energy and by early experiences
Unconscious motives and conflicts are central in
present behaviour. Irrational forces are strong and
the individual is driven by impulses
These impulses as solely sexual and aggressive
Early development is of critical importance as later
personality problems are rooted in repressed
childhood conflicts.
Psychoanalysis
Philosophy: Humans are sexually and
aggressive driven. Childhood conflicts emerge
as personality problems when defense
mechanisms fail.
Theorist: Sigmund Freud
Goals: Insight, personality restructuring,
making the unconscious conscious, strengthen
ego.
Techniques: Transference analysis, dream
analysis, catharsis, interpretation, free
association.
Psychoanalysis contd
Humans are amoral, selfish and irrational
Adults behavior is determined by the crucial
first five years
Sexual impulses are key determinants of
behavior to gratify all bodily parts
Our behavior is controlled by unconscious
determinants
Three levels of awareness
CONSCIOUS equates with awareness
PRECONSCIOUS can be brought to the
conscious state (recollections)
UNCONSCIOUS we are unaware of the
mental activity, cannot bring into
consciousness
Sub-system of personality
ID the instinct, including sex, aggression, instant
gratification, the pleasure principles (primary process
thinking our most primitive need gratification type
thoughts )
EGO develop because of the need of the person to
deal with the realities of the world. EGO mediate
between the pleasure principles and the outer world
(to balance our primitive needs and our moral/ethical
beliefs) - policemen
SUPREGO internally control the ID which is
unaccepted. SUPEREGO is unconscious represents
what is ideal and strives for perfection
(our conscience and counteracted the Id with moral and
ethical thoughts
Freud came to see personality as having three aspects, which
work together to produce all of our complex behaviours: the
Id, the Ego and the Superego. All 3 components need to be
well-balanced in order to have good amount of psychological
energy available and to have reasonable mental health.
THE ID: functions in the irrational and emotional part of the
mind. At birth a babys mind is all Id - want want want. The Id
is the primitive mind. It contains all the basic needs and
feelings. It is the source for libido (psychic energy). And it has
only one rule --> the pleasure principle: I want it and I want
it all now. In transactional analysis, Id equates to "Child".
THE EGO: functions with the rational part of the mind. The Ego
develops out of growing awareness that you cant always get
what you want. The Ego relates to the real world and operates
via the reality principle. The Ego realizes the need for
compromise and negotiates between the Id and the
Superego. The Ego's job is to get the Id's pleasures but to be
reasonable and bear the long-term consequences in mind
THE SUPEREGO (Over-I): The Superego is the last part of the mind to develop. It
might be called the moral part of the mind. The Superego becomes an
embodiment of parental and societal values. It stores and enforces rules. It
constantly strives for perfection, even though this perfection ideal may be quite far
from reality or possibility. Its power to enforce rules comes from its ability to
create anxiety.

The Superego has two subsystems: Ego Ideal and Conscience. The Ego Ideal
provides rules for good behaviour, and standards of excellence towards which the
Ego must strive. The Ego ideal is basically what the childs parents approve of or
value. The Conscience is the rules about what constitutes bad behaviour.

However, the Ego has a difficult time dealing with the competing demands of the
Superego and the Id. According to the psychoanalytic view, this psychological
conflict is an intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience. The conflict
between the Id and Superego, negotiated by the Ego, is one of the fundamental
psychological battles all people face. The way in which a person characteristically
resolves the instant gratification vs. longer-term reward dilemma in many ways
comes to reflect on their "character".
Strength and weaknesses
The most comprehensive and detailed theory
Need a lengthy process of training
In clinical setting not in school
Outdated view of female sexuality
Deterministic and pessimistic view of human
kind
Success defined in term of clients degree of
acceptance of the helpers view of life
Analytic Therapy
Philosophy: Humans strive for individuation.
Humans are dynamic and spiritual
Theorist: Carl Jung
Goals: Integration of conscious and
unconscious systems. Self-knowledge,
personality restructuring
Techniques: Personality assessment, art
therapy, dream work, archetype analysis, card
sort
Carl Gustav Jung. His approach to human
psychology emphasized understanding the
psyche through exploring the world of dreams,
art, mythology, world religion and philosophy. He
was a strong believer in the importance of
integration of opposites (e.g. masculine and
femininine, thinking and feeling, science and
spirituality). Though not the first to analyze
dreams, his contributions to dream analysis were
influential and extensive.
The terms extrovert and introvert derive from
this work. The extrovert orientation finds
meaning outside the self, in the surrounding
world, whereas the introvert is introspective and
finds it within.
There are four psychological functions in
Jungs model:
Two rational functions (thinking and feeling),
Two perceptive functions (sensation and
intuition).
Carl Jung (1875-1961)
Jung asserted that individual's are born
knowing certain things. For example, people
are born afraid of the dark and fire. This has
been passed down from our ancestors. For
Jung these archetypes form the basis of
personality, accounting for why people are not
merely driven by their past experiences but
also strive to grow and become something
better. In essence, Jung saw the self as striving
for wholeness.
Adlerian Theory
Alfred Adler (1819-1937)
Freud's emphasis on biological urges
(psychosexual) as determinants of behaviour was
disputed by Alder. According to Alder the self
enables us to fulfill our lifestyle, to become more
than our genes have endowed on us. Alder
foreshadowed the modern emphasis on self or
human potiential.
Stressed the impact of social relationships on
psychological development as opposed to that of
psychosexual as theorised by Freud.
Individual Psychology
Philosophy: People are motivated by social
interest. All behavior is goal directed as we
strive to move from a position of felt minus to
felt plus. There are five life tasks: 1) work, 2)
love, 3) friendship, 4) spirituality, and 5) self-
understanding.
Theorist: Alfred Adler
Goals: Identifying and exploring mistaken
goals.
Techniques: Life style assessment, parent
education, marriage and family therapy, play
therapy, dream work, interpretation,
paradoxical intention
Adler
We feel inferior and strive for inferiority
We need to master the environment or
mastering others
People are not powerless of external forces
Psychological growth moving from self
centered attitude to mastery of the
environment
Developing life tasks
Contd..
A major determinant of life style is the family
environment in which the child grows
The earliest experiences are significant
because everything is so new and unexpected
Adler gave special weight to the position of
the child in relation to siblings (birth order)
1st born child is given much attention which is
withdrawn with the birth of 2nd child
Contd
The firstborn child is likely to have intensified feelings
of power and superiority, high anxiety, and
overprotective tendencies
If the child is three or older when the second child is
born, the child will already have developed a
cooperating style
If the firstborn is less than three, hostility and
resentment will be largely unconscious, which makes
them more resistant to change in later life
2nd child likely to be ambitious but better adjusted
The youngest child is spoiled and more likely to
become a problem child and a neurotic maladjusted
adult
Individual Psychology
Adler: a single "drive" or motivating force lies
behind all our behavior and experience.
Adler: called that motivating force the striving
for perfection.
Striving for perfection: the desire we all have
to fulfill our potentials, to come closer and
closer to our ideal.
Striving for perfection: similar to the more
popular idea of self-actualization.
CLIENT-CENTERED THEORY
Client-Centered
Worldview: People have own potential, worth and
dignity
Philosophy: People are basically good and strive to
actualize. The affective world of others is very
important. Relationships bring change. People are
unique and the subjective world of others is of the
most importance.
Theorist: Carl Rogers
Goals: Help develop congruence between real self and
ideal self. Help remove road blocks toward self-
actualization. Help client develop self trust and an
internal locus of control.
Techniques: Develop a positive relationship. Empathy,
genuineness and positive regard
It is a non-directive approach.
"Directive" means any counselor behavior that
deliberately steers the client in some way.
Directive behaviors include, asking primarily
closed ended questions (require yes or no
answers), offering treatments, and making
interpretations and diagnoses.
A non-directive approach is very appealing to
many clients, because they get to keep control
over the content and pace of the counseling. It
is intended to serve them. The counselor isn't
evaluating them in any way or trying to "figure
them out".
Person-Centred Counselling
Taking the view that every individual has the
internal resourses they need for growth.
client-centered counseling aims to provide
three core conditions (unconditional positive
regard, empathy and congruence) which help
that growth to occur.)
Client centered cond
Incongruity issues resolution of real self
versus ideal self incongruence. Exploring in-
depth of mixed and ambivalent emotions
Issues: To release human potential to find its
own natural directions and to resolve real
self/ideal self.
"the desire to become more and more what
one is, to become
everything that one is capable of becoming"
Client centered
3 core conditions necessary and sufficient

1. Genuineness
Transparent
Congruent

2. Unconditional Positive Regard - A real caring and


respect for the other person, knowing the person
has the capacity for self-direction

3. Empathy - understanding
Therapeutic Approach of Client-
Centred Counseling
3 core conditions,

1 Unconditional positive regard


~A real caring and respect for the other person,
knowing the person has the capacity for self-direction.
2 Empathic understanding
~ the counselor accurately understands the client's
thoughts, feelings, and meanings from the client's own
perspective.
3 Congruence
~the counselor is authentic and genuine. The counselor
does not present an aloof professional facade, but is
present and transparent to the client.
A CC counselor
Listens and tries to understand how things are from
the client's point of view.
Checks that understanding with the client if unsure.
Paraphrasing may be used.
Treats the client with the utmost respect and
regard.
There is also a mandate for the educator to be
"congruent" or "transparent" - which means being
self-aware, self-accepting, and having no mask
between oneself and the client. The
educator/counselor knows him/herself and is willing
to be known.
Allows the client to guide themselves through the
episode rather than being led by the professional.
sessions should not be directive and the counselor
should be a source of understanding and
encouragement rather than the problem solver.
The Client-Centered approach allows clients to
move at their own pace and to direct their own
development.
An individual's self-concept is an important issue.
Exp: if someone has been brought up around
negative experiences or interactions, it is likely
that the client's self-concept will be damaged.
**So, counselor role is to listen, understand and
accept in a non-judgmental manner, thus allowing
the clients to help themselves.
Rational Emotive &
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
REBT
COGNITIVE
Cognitive psychology is the school of
psychology that examines internal mental
processes such as problem solving, memory,
and language
any therapy that is based on the belief that
our thoughts are directly connected to how
we feel
focuses in the mental processes involved in
knowing: how we direct our attention,
perceive, remember, think and solve
problems (John W. Santrock 2005).
Cognitive
Philosophy: A change in thinking creates a
change in behavior or emotions. People tend
to develop faulty thinking.
Theorists: Beck, Burns, Meichenbaum
Goals: Develop more effective cognitions
Techniques: Education, cognitive-
restructuring, behavioral modification
Cognitive philosophy a commonsensical
approach i.e. what people think and say about
themselves their attitudes, ideas and ideals
is relevant and important.

Reject unconscious (psychoanalytic), overt


behavior (behaviorism) and neuropsychiatry
(physiological disorder) as cause of emotional
disturbances.
cognitive
Problematic emotion and behavior are
influenced by belief, attitudes and perception
cognition
Faulty thinking
Perception not events create ones mood
fortune telling, should, mindreading,
overgeneralized, labeling.
Im[portance of internal dialogue
Cognitive-Behavioural
What we think is the root of our emotional
and behavioural life.
Consequently a change in cognition will
inevitably cause a chance a change in our
behaviours and emotions.
Dysfunction and maladjustment are problems
of faulty or irrational thoughts.
Stimulus

Attention

Perception

Thought processes

Decision

Response or action

An early version of the information-processing


approach (Michael W. Eysenck 2001)
Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy
Philosophy: Human nature has inherent
tendencies toward growth and rationality as
well as toward dysfunction and irrationality.
There is often tension between these. Beliefs
are more important than objective reality.
Theorist: Albert Ellis
Goals: Assess irrational beliefs and change
these to be more rational.
Techniques: Many
Rational and Irrational Thinking
tendency to be irrational or illogical that is the
root cause of most human unhappiness and
suffering
aim of REBT is to help the client identify the
ways in which his irrational thinking causes his
unhappiness, and to further encourage him to
establish and maintain more rational and
therefore functional ways of thinking
Ellis approach involved demonstrated to the
client that strong negative feelings such as
anger, depression, anxiety, or guilt are not
remedied by extensive explorations into the
past.
They are generated situation by situation via
the individuals irrational attitudes or beliefs
about the situation.
The ABC Model
According to the model, it is not what
happens at point A which causes an individual
to experience disturbance or discomfort; on
the contrary, it is the individual's own self-talk
or 'catastrophising' which inflicts the damage
and this takes place at point B.
Then at point C, the individual experiences the
emotional disturbance or reaction which
follows directly from his own negative self-
talk.
Figure1:
ACTIVATING EVENT
A Paul,18, fails his
driving test

BELIEF AND INFERENCE


Paul believes:' It's
awful that I failed the
B test and I'm
useless for having failed. `

EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES


Paul becomes
unhappy and depressed.
C Decides he
will not try the test again.
Figure2:
ACTIVATING EVENT
A Paul,18, fails his
driving test
BELIEF AND INFERENCE
Paul thinks: Too bad I
failed the test. It's
B disappointing. I'll
have to take more
lessons.'
EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CONSEQUENCES
Paul feels regret,
disappointment and
C some irritation.
Decides to take
more lessons and
to do the test
again as soon as
possible
Four typical ways of thinking
1.Awfulising: using words like 'awful, 'terrible, 'horrible,
'catastrophic to describe
something Example: 'It would be terrible if , 'Its the
worst thing that could happen, 'That would be the end of
the world.
2.Cant-stand-it: viewing an event or experience as
unbearable Example: 'I cant stand it, 'Its absolutely
unbearable, Ill die if I get rejected.
3.Demanding: using 'shoulds (moralising) or 'musts
(musturbating) - Example: 'I should not have done that, 'I
must not fail, 'I need to be loved, 'I have to have a drink.
4.People-rating: labelling or rating your total self (or
someone elses) Example: 'Im stupid /hopeless /useless
/worthless.
Assumptions
People seek pleasure and avoid pain Freud, Gestalt
Early family and cultural influences are significant
Adler
We are prone to suggestion
Habit and cognitive conditioning make it difficult for
people to think or act differently
We refuse to acknowledge mistakes and use defenses
Active teaching is more effective than passive learning
(Piaget)
People have the capacity to grow and become less
disturbed (Maslow, Rogers)
Widespread Irrational Beliefs
Ellis (1967) introduced 11 irrational belief
1. An adult human must be loved or approved by almost everyone.
2. In order to feel worthwhile, a person must be competent in all
possible respects.
3. Some people are bad or wicked and therefore should be blamed and
punished
4. When things are not the way you want them to be, it is a
catastrophe.
5. People have little or no control over the external causes of the bad
things that happen to them.
6. The best way to handle a dangerous or fear-producing event is to
worry about it and dwell on it.
7. It is easier to avoid certain life difficulties and responsibilities than it
is to face them.
8. One needs to depend on others and to rely on someone stronger
than oneself.
9. One's present behavior is determined primarily by one's past
history.
10. One should be upset by the problems of others.
11. There is always a perfect solution to a human problem, and it is
essential to find it.
Man is disturbed not by things, but by the
views which he takes of them Epictetus,
Roman Philosopher
There is nothing either good or bad, but
thinking make it so Hamlet (Shakespeare)
The REBT Model
promote client self-awareness, and to help
them achieve intellectual as well as emotional
insight.
Action is required as well, and this is stressed
through a programme of behavioural and
emotive techniques designed to facilitate
more rational and scientific ways of thinking.
more concerned with clients' present
problems
Model ABCDE
A activating experiences
B beliefs about the experiences. What did
you tell yourself? Should, must, ought
C- consequences of your belief
D disputing irrational belief. Where is the
evidence
E effect of disputing irrational belief. Bring
about new effect or philosophy
Example of E
Yes, I failed, and thats not good, but
I failed, but I refused to feel bad, awful or
worthless (appropriate feeling)
I learnt and will use my experience to do it
better the next time (desired behavioural
effect)
Helping Clients to Change
help them change their faulty cognitions,
including expectations, beliefs and fantasies. In
order to accomplish this, Beck enlists the client's
participation as a colleague and equal. Together,
therapist and client actively explore the client's
cognitions, both during and in between
counselling sessions. Clients are given homework
to complete between sessions. This usually takes
the form of a log or journal in which feelings (and
factors which alter them) are recorded. During
therapy, these recordings are discussed further, in
an effort to establish exactly how they affect the
client's cognitions.
BEHAVIORISM THEORY
Behavioral
Human are shaped and determined by socio-
culture conditioning.
The view is basically one that is determinist as
all behaviors are a product of learning through
conditioning and reinforcement
What was learnt can be unlearnt
Behaviorism
Worldview: Environment shaped us and we have little
choice.
Philosophy: All behavior results from learning. Only
that which is measurable is relevant. If you "get rid of
the symptom, you get rid of the problem."
Theorist: B.F. Skinner
Goals: Change the environment to change behavior.
Problem alleviation.
Techniques: Diagnosis, testing, implosive therapy,
aversion therapy, conditioning, education, skills
training, charting, reinforcement schedules, behavioral
modification
Skinner's Concepts
Psychologist B. F. Skinner three possible
consequences of any behavior: reinforcements
which are consequences which increase the
likelihood of behavior (such as praise or food),
punishments which tend to decrease behavior
(such as a traffic ticket), and the lack of
reinforcement or punishment which also tends
to decrease behavior
Skinner assumes that all human behavior is
ultimately due to the above influences. Learning
in the above ways is called "conditioning" and his
entire system is often referred to as
"behaviorism."
Aversive Therapy
Aversive therapy aims to rid the client of the
undesirable behaviour by pairing the behaviour with
aversive consequences. e..g. If alcohol is paired with a
nausea-inducing drug, or a sexually deviant impulse is
paired with electric shock, the expected results is that
the client will avoid the undesired behaviour. Merely
thinking about alcohol makes the person feel
nauseated.
Systematic Desensitisation
Systematic desensitisation introduced mainly to treat
phobias and specific anxieties. The client is gradually
exposed to the feared object or situation. Over time
the panic induced by the feared object will disappear.
Contd
Flooding
Flooding treats anxiety in quite the opposite
manner. The phobic patient is immersed in the
phobic situation and are encouraged to
experience the full force of the anxiety storm. For
example, someone who is agoraphobic and afraid
to leave home would be encouraged to spend an
hour in the park and thus be flooded with
anxiety. Gradually the anxiety would disappear.
Emerging Approaches
As information on counselling is collected new
theories emerge.
Emerging approaches often include aspects of
previously founded theories.
Contemporary emerging approaches tend to
focus heavily on phenomenology, human
uniqueness, multicultural concerns and client
empowerment.
REALITY THEORY
Reality Theory / Choice Therapy
Philosophy: All of our behaviors are an
attempt to control perceptions. We have basic
human needs for survival, belonging, power,
fun, freedom.
How we attempt to meet this needs, and how
successful we are, determines our identity. We
have the ability to make new choices.
Reality as control theory
Total behaviour as;
1. Active behaviour
2. Thinking
3. Feeling
4. Physiology
Theorist: William Glasser
Goals: Gain better control of our perceptions.
Help the client be more responsible. Help the
client find socially appropriate ways to meet
needs.
Techniques: Contracting, pinning down,
education, confrontation, positiveness,
resolving conflicts
Personality people are ultimately self
determining
Internal and external psychosocial pressures
hinders emotional functioning
Identity most important growth.
Acceptance of others
Important of love and worth
Failure identity lonely, self critical and
irrational. Rigid and ineffective behaviour
Maladjustment not fulfilling love and self
worth
RT
Focuses on present behavior not past history
Cr as teacher and model
Cl need for a sense of identity
RT involve helping Cl make a plan to improve
his/her behaviour
GESTALT THEORY
Gestalt
Worldview: People are whole not part, seeking to
find completeness
Philosophy: People organize the world by their
own subjective reality. We are holistic and strive
for homeostasis.
Goals: Integration of our own experiences and
components. Develop appropriate boundaries.
Complete unfinished business. Insight.
Techniques: Enactment completing unfinished
business, directed behavior, fantasy, "empty chair,
dream work, homework, "whats your ____
telling you?. Emphasize personal responsibilities
Gestalt counseling provides the
opportunity to:-
Increase awareness by focusing on present
experience through exploring feelings, senses and
thoughts.
Talk through distressing, confusing and
unsatisfying situations. This can allow the space
to express feelings, thoughts and beliefs that
consider unacceptable, are out of awareness or
difficult to express.
Increase body awareness as client are invited to
tune into and translate his or her bodys language.
Understand more about how the client relate.
The sessions explore the contact between client
and the counselor.
Summary of Gestalt Counselling
Aim is to help facilitate the changes that client
may wish to make, not to provide advice, or
instructions.
A major strength of Gestalt counseling and
psychotherapy is that the Gestaltist's role is to
facilitate the client's "response-ability" to
solve his or her own problems.
Multicutural
Philosophy: All learning is culturally defined.
Cultural identity and development are a key
component of who each person is. Norms
differ greatly across cultures.
Goals: Change oppressive situations,
understand cultural identity
Techniques: Vary by culture, gain awareness of
clients worldview
Integrative
Philosophy: No one theory is comprehensive
enough for all clients and problems.
Goals: Assess what the client needs and offer
this approach or appropriate techniques
Techniques: Varied
Convergence of theories
Almost all theories attempt to combat
demoralization emotional charged, confiding
relationship, healing setting, help client make
sense of experience, and attempt to restore
health.
All involve therapeutic process consciousness
raising, emotional catharsis or corrective
emotional exp, explore choices and
responsibilities, alter responses to stimuli,
reinforcement and contingency plan
A developmental cognitive model reality is
relative, individually constructed. All theories are
based on an attempt to solve a common
problems
Application ?
YOU decide clients role in the world? YOUR
views of their nature
CLIENTS personality development? The
importance of first 5 years
CLIENTS maladaptive behavior? Why
maladjustment?
YOUR goal of helping for the CLIENT
YOUR relationship with the CLIENT
YOUR roles

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