ECOLOGY OF LIFE

Introduction
Ecology is the scientific study of the processes regulating
the distribution and abundance of organism and the
interactions among them, and the study of how these
organisms in turn mediate the transport and transformation
of energy and matter in the biosphere.

The goal of ecology is to understand the principles of

operation of natural systems and to predict their responses
to change.
Levels of organizations of ecology
Individual, Species, organism
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biome
Biosphere
 Individual, Species, organism
An individual is any living thing or organism.
Individual do not breed with individuals from the
other groups. Animals, unlike plants, tend to be
very definite with this term because some plants
can cross-breed with the other fertile plants. In
image you will notice that Gill, the goldfish, is
interacting with its environment, and will only
crossbreed with the other gold fishes just like her.
 Population
-A group of individuals of a given species that
live in a specific geographic area at a given
time. (example is Gill and his family and
friends and other fishes of gills species) Note
that populations include individuals of the
same species, but may have different genetic
makeup such as hair/eye/skin color and size
between themselves and other populations.
 Community
This includes all the populations in a specific
area at a given time. A community includes
populations of organisms of different species.
In the diagram above, note how populations of
gold fishes salmons, crabs and herrings
coexist in a defined location. A great
community usually includes biodiversity.
Ecosystem
As explained in the pages earlier, ecosystems include more than a
community of living organism (abiotic) interacting with the
environment (abiotic). At this level note how they depend on other
abiotic factors such as rocks, water, air and temperature.
An ecosystem is a complex set of relationship among the living
resources, habitats, and residents of an area. It includes plants, trees
animals, fish, birds, micro organism, water, soil, and people. Every
thing that lives in an ecosystem is dependent on the other species and
elements that are also part of that ecological community.
Biome
A biome, in simple terms is a set of ecosystems sharing similar
characteristics with their biotic factors adapted to their environment.

A large community of plants and animals that occupies a distinct

region.
Biosphere
When we consider all the different biomes, each blending into the
other, will all humans living in many different geographic areas, we
form a huge community of humans, animals and plants, in their
defined habitats. A biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystem
established on earth
the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living
beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the
elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere.
 Types
of
Biomes
 Biomes are very large ecological areas on earths
surface, with fauna and flora (animals and plants)
adapting to their environment. Biomes are often
defined by abiotic factors such as climate, relief,
geology, soils and vegetation.
Desert biomes
makeup about 20% of the total land cover on earth and
are characterized by little (less than 5cm/yr.) or no
rainfall.
have very high temperatures because of the little
vegetative cover, less cloud cover, low atmospheric
moisture and he lands exposure of the sun.
humidity is very low, with a few events of the very
little rain in a year
Four major kinds
*Hot and Dry
*Semi-Arid
*Coastal
*Cold
 Hot and Dry Desert
The seasons are generally warm throughout the year and very hot in
the summer. The winters usually bring little rainfall. Temperatures
exhibit daily extremes because the atmosphere contains little humidity
to block the Suns rays. Desert surfaces receive a little more than twice
the solar radiation received by humid regions and lose almost twice as
much heat at night. Many mean annual temperatures range from 20-
25 C. The extreme maximum ranges from 43.5-49 C. Minimum
temperatures sometimes drop to -18 C.
 Semi-Arid Desert
The summers are moderately long and dry, and like hot deserts, the
winters normally bring low concentrations of rainfall. Summer
temperatures usually average between 21-27 C. It normally does not
go above 38 C and evening temperatures are cool, at around 10 C.
Cool nights help both plants and animals by reducing moisture loss
from transpiration, sweating and breathing. Furthermore, condensation
of dew caused by night cooling may equal or exceed the rainfall
received by some deserts. As in the hot desert, rainfall is often very
low and/or concentrated. The average rainfall ranges from 2-4 cm
annually.
 Coastal Desert
These deserts occur in moderately cool to warm areas such as the
Nearctic and Neotropical realm. A good example is the Atacama of
Chile.The cool winters of coastal deserts are followed by moderately
long, warm summers. The average summer temperature ranges from
13-24 C; winter temperatures are 5 C or below. The maximum
annual temperature is about 35 C and the minimum is about -4 C. In
Chile, the temperature ranges from -2 to 5 C in July and 21-25 C in
January.
 Cold Desert
These deserts are characterized by cold winters with snowfall and high
overall rainfall throughout the winter and occasionally over the
summer. They occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the Nearctic
realm. They have short, moist, and moderately warm summers with
fairly long, cold winters. The mean winter temperature is between -2
to 4 C and the mean summer temperature is between 21-26 C.The
winters receive quite a bit of snow. The mean annual precipitation
ranges from 15-26 cm.
Aquatic Biome
This includes all water bodies on the earths surface.
These biomes make up about 73% of the total earths surface.
Life forms in these waters depend on the abiotic factors such as
sunlight entering the waters, temperature, pressure, salt content and so
on. Water biomes with lots of light tend to have more flora (plant)
diversity and the growth of algae and plankton is more. Small water
bodies that freeze during the cold seasons, or dry out in the dry and hot
seasons tend to have less diversity
Aquatic biomes are grouped into two, Freshwater (lakes and ponds,
rivers and streams, wetlands) and Marine (Oceans, coral reefs and
estuaries)
Freshwater
Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentrationusually less
than 1%. Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the
low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt
concentration (i.e, ocean). There are different types of freshwater
regions: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers, and wetlands.
Marine
Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface and
include oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries. Marine algae supply much
of the worlds oxygen supply and take in a huge amount of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. The evaporation of the seawater provides
rainwater for the land.
Forest
-makeup about 30% of the total land covers on earth and are of
incredible value to life on earth. They are a store of carbon and play a
very important role in climate control. They have a watershed role and
are a source of many raw materials that humans depend on. It is
believed that forests have the most biodiversity. A small portion of the
Rainforest, for example, may be home to millions of insects, birds,
animals, and plants.
There are three main biomes that make up forest biomes. These are the
Tropical Rainforest, Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the
Taiga)
Tropical Rainforest
Tropical forests are characterized by the greatest diversity of species.
They occur near the equator, within the area bounded by latitudes 23.5
degrees N and 23.5 degrees S. One of the major characteristics of
tropical forests is their distinct seasonality: winter is absent, and only
two seasons are present (rainy and dry). The length of daylight is 12
hours and varies little.
Temperate Forest
Temperate forests occur in eastern North America, northeastern Asia,
and western and central Europe. Well-defined seasons with a distinct
winter characterize this forest biome. Moderate climate and a growing
season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost-free months distinguish
temperate forests.
Boreal Forests
Boreal forests, or taiga, represent the largest terrestrial biome.
Occurring between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes, boreal forests
can be found in the broad belt of Eurasia and North America: two-
thirds in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada.
Seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm summers
and long, cold, and dry winters. The length of the growing season in
boreal forests is 130 days.
Grassland Biome
These are massive areas dominated by one or a few species of grass,
with a few sparsely distributed trees.
There are two main types of grassland biomes: The Savanna
Grasslands and the Temperate Grasslands
Savanna Grasslands
A seasonal change occurs between wet tropical air masses and dry
tropical air masses. As a result, there is a very wet season and a very
dry season. Trade winds dominate during the dry season. It gets a little
cooler during this dry season but will become very hot just before the
wet season.
Temperature Range: 16 C
Global Range: India, Indochina, West Africa,
southern Africa, South America
and the north coast of Australia
Temperate Grassland
Temperate grasslands are characterized as having grasses as the
dominant vegetation. Trees and large shrubs are absent. Temperatures
vary more from summer to winter, and the amount of rainfall is less in
temperate grasslands than in savannas. The major manifestations are
the veldts of South Africa, the puszta of Hungary, the pampas of
Argentina and Uruguay, the steppes of the former Soviet Union, and
the plains and prairies of central North America. Temperate grasslands
have hot summers and cold winters. Rainfall is moderate.
 Tundra
This is known to be the coldest of all the terrestrial (land) biomes, with
the least bio-diversity capacity. Tundra got its name from Tunturia a
Finnish word that means barren land. This biome has a very little
rain with freezing temperatures, and covers about a fifth of the earths
land surface.
There are two major tundra biomes.
 Arctic tundra
is located in the northern hemisphere, encircling the north pole and
extending south to the coniferous forests of the taiga. The arctic is
known for its cold, desert-like conditions. The growing season ranges
from 50 to 60 days. The average winter temperature is -34 C (-30 F),
but the average summer temperature is 3-12 C (37-54 F) which
enables this biome to sustain life. Rainfall may vary in different
regions of the arctic. Yearly precipitation, including melting snow, is
15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). Soil is formed slowly. A layer of
permanently frozen subsoil called permafrost exists, consisting
mostly of gravel and finer material. When water saturates the upper
surface, bogs and ponds may form, providing moisture for plants.
 Alpine Tundra
Alpine tundra is located on mountains throughout the world at high
altitude where trees cannot grow. The growing season is
approximately 180 days. The nighttime temperature is usually below
freezing. Unlike the arctic tundra, the soil in the alpine is well drained.
The plants are very similar to those of the arctic ones and include:
tussock grasses, dwarf trees, small-leafed shrubs, and heaths
Animals living in the alpine tundra are also well adapted:Mammals:
pikas, marmots, mountain goats, sheep, elk
Birds: grouse like birds
Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies