Principles of Construction

Introduction
Masonry:
o Brick masonry
Terminology
Types of bond in brick masonry
o Stone masonry
Dressing of stone masonry
Terminology of stone masonry
Classification of stone masonry
Brick Masonry
o Brick masonry is defined as the systematic of bricks and bonding
them together with cement motor or lime motor

The strength of brick masonry depends upon

Quality of bricks ;
Quality of motor;
Method of bending used;
Terminology
Header face
Stretcher face
Arrises
Course
Header course
Stretcher course
Bed joint
Quoin
Perpends
Frog
Brick bat
Queen Closure
Squint quain
BONDING IN BRICK WORK
o Bonding in brick wood is the art of laying mortar and bricks so
that strong
joints are obtained in the brick masonry.

o Proportion of cement and sand in mortar varies from 1:3 to 1:6

by volume.
Types of bond in brick masonry
o Header bond
o Stretcher bond
o English bond
o Flemish bond
(i) Single Flemish bond
(ii) Double Flemish bond
o Raking bond
(i) Zig-zag bond
(ii) Diagonal bond
(iii) Herring-bone bond
o English cross bond
o Dutch bond
o Garden wall bond
(i) English garden wall bond
(ii) Flemish garden wall bond
Header bond
Bricks are laid as headers on faces

Overlap is done by a three-quarter

bat in each alternate course

Stretcher bond
All bricks are laid as stretchers
Bond is used for half brick wall only
Commonly adopted in construction
of half brick of partition wall
English bond
English bond has alternate course
of headers and stretchers, with a
closer placed next to the quoin
header to form a lap or half bond

The first course is established , and

then corners are racked back as
soon as possible to enable you run
in the rest of wall
 Flemish bond
i. Single Flemish bond
Combination of English and
Flemish bond
In a course, facing is Flemish bond
and backing is English bond

ii. Double Flemish bond

Each course presents the same appearance
both in the face and back of the wall
Every course consists of a header and
stretchers alternately
 Raking Bond

Bricks are laid at any angle other than 0 or 90 degrees

Arrangement helps to increase longitudinal stability of thick wall

i. Hearing Bond
Suited for very thick wall (not less
than 4 brick thick)
Bricks are laid at 45 degree in two
direction from centre
Commonly used for brick paving
ii. Diagonal Bond
Bricks are inclined in one direction
only
Angle of inclination is so selected that
there is a minimum cutting of bricks
Best suited for wall which are 2 to 4
brick thick

iii. Zig-zag Bond

Similar to herring bond
Bricks are laid in zig-zag fashion
Commonly adopted in brick paved
flooring
English cross Bond
Similar to English bond
Each alternate stretching course
has header next to quoin stretcher

Dutch Bond
Modification of English cross bond
Each stretching course starts at
quoin with a bat and every
alternate stretching course has
header placed next to the bat
provided at quoin
 Garden Wall Bond

Suitable for one brick thick wall

Bond is not so strong, therefore restricted to walls which are not
subjected to large stresses.

i. English Garden walls

Brick arrangement similar to
English bond
Usually one course of header and
three course of stretchers
ii. Flemish Garden walls
Composed of one header and 3/5 stretchers in series
throughout the length
Stone Masonry
Stone Masonry
o Types of stone
o Uses of stone masonry
o Dressing of stones
o Types of dressing
i. Hammer Dressing
ii. Chisel Dressing
iii. Axed Finish
iv. Polished Finish
Terminology of Stone Masonry
o Natural bed
o Plinth
o Corbel
o Cornice
o Coping
o Throating
o Weathering
o Through Stones or Bond Stones
o Jamb
o Hearting
o Lintels or Heads
Types of Stone Masonry
o Rubble masonry
i. Coursed rubble masonry
ii. Un-coursed masonry
iii. Dry rubble masonry
iv. Polygonal shape masonry

o Ashlar masonry
i. Ashlar fine
ii. Ashlar rough tooled
iii. Ashlar chamfered
iv.Ashlar back in course
 Rubble Masonry
A Rubbles stone masonry wall is made up of stones of
irregular sizes and shapes. The stones from the quarry are
broken into small sizes. There are directly used in the
construction work.
In some cases, these stones may be shaped to suit the
requirement, with the help of hammers. These stones
have rounded natural faces or angular broken pieces.
Coursed rubble masonry
In this type of masonry stones having
straight bed and sides are used.
The stones are usually squared and
brought to hammer dressed or straight
cut finish. The work is carried out in
courses of varying depth

Un- Coursed rubble masonry

In this un-coursed square rubble
masonry, the different sizes of stones
having straight edges and sides are
arranged on face in several irregular
patterns.
Dry rubble masonry
In this type of masonry, mortar is not
used in the joints.
This type of construction is the cheapest
and requires more skill in construction.
This may be used for non-load bearing
wall such as compound walls

Polygonal shape masonry

In this type of rubble masonry, stones are
hammer dressed .
The stones used for face work are
dressed in an irregular polygonal shape.
Thus the face joints are seen running in
an irregular fashion in all directions
 Ashlar Masonry
In Ashlar masonry, no irregular stones are used. The
entire construction is done using square or rectangular
dressed stone blocks.
The beds sides are faces of the stones used in this
masonry are all dressed finely with chisel.
This masonry is laid in courses with thin end joints. It is
the highest grade of masonry and costly.
By arranging stones in various patterns, different types of
appearances can be obtained
Ashlar fine masonry
In this type of masonry, each stone is cut
to uniform size and shape with all sides
rectangular, so that the stone gives
perfectly horizontal and vertical joints
with adjoining stones
This type of ashlar masonry is very costly
Ashlar fine masonry
In this type of masonry, the beds and
sides are finely chisel-dressed but the
face is made rough by means of tools
A strip, about 25mm wide and made by
means of chisel is provided around the
perimeter of the rough dressed face of
each stone
Ashlar chamfered
In this type of masonry, the beds and
sides are finely chisel-dressed but the
face is made rough by means of tool
A strip, about 25mm wide and made by
means of chisel is provided around the
perimeter of the rough dressed face of
each stone but is chamfered at an angle
of 45 degrees
Ashlar back in course
This is combination of rubble masonry
and ashlar masonry.
In this type of masonry, the face work is
provided with rough tooled or hammer
dress stones and backing of wall may be
made in rubble masonry
Surface Finishes
 Surface Finishes
The art of treating the surface of building materials with a
suitable covering material to make them weather resisting
and decorative
The covering material which are used for finishing are
plasters, paints, washes etc..,
 Pointing
Pointing is raking out the joints in brick work or in stone
masonry to depth about 13mm and filling the same with
mortar of slightly richer mix
 This treatment not only protects the joints from the
adverse effect of atmosphere but also magnifies the
appearance of the surface by exhibiting the pattern of the
joints, their thickness, colours and texture prominently
 Mortar for pointing
Pointing may also be done by using line or cement mortar.
The mortar for lime pointing is made by taking equal part
of fat lime and fine sand and then grinding the mixture
thoroughly, in mortar mill.
The mortar for cement pointing is made by mixing
cement and sand in proportion of 1:2 or 1:3
Types of pointing
o Cut/weathered/struck pointing
o Keyeed/ grooved pointing
o V Grooved pointing
o Flush pointing
o Tuck pointing
o Beaded pointing
 Cut/weathered/struck pointing
The mortar is first pressed into the
raked joints. While the mortar is still
green, the top of the horizontal joints is
neatly pressed back by 3-6mm with
pointing tool.
Thus the joint is finished sloping from
top to bottom.
Keyeed/ grooved pointing
The mortar is pressed into the raked
joints and finished off flush with the
face of the wall, a groove is formed by
running the bent end of a small steel
rod (6 mm in dia) straight along the
centre line of the joints.
The vertical joints are also finished in
the same manner
 V Grooved pointing
This type of pointing is made similar to
keyed or grooved pointing by suitably
shaping the end of the steel rod to be
used for forming the grooving

Flush pointing
The mortar is pressed into the raked
joints and finished off flush with edges
of the bricks or stones, so as to give a
smooth appearance.
The edges are then neatly trimmed
with a trowel and straight edge.
 Tuck pointing
The mortar is first pressed in the ranked
joints and there after it is finished flush
with the face of the wall.
The top and bottom edges of the joints
are cut parallel so as to have a
uniformly raised band about 6mm high
and 10mmin width.
Beaded pointing
The mortar is pressed in the raked
joints and finished off flush with the
face of the wall.
A steel rod having its end suitably
shape is run straight along the centre
line of joints to from the beading
 Plastering
Plaster is a building material used for coating walls and ceiling
Plaster is manufactured as a dry powder and is mixed with water to
form paste when used.
The reaction with water liberates heat through crystallization and
the hydrated plaster then hardens.
Plaster can be relatively easily worked with metal tools or even
sandpaper.
These characteristics make plaster suitable for finishing rather than
a load-bearing material
Types of Plasters
o Lime plaster
o Cement plaster
o Stucco plaster
o Mud plaster
 Lime plaster

Lime used in plastering may be fat lime

and hydraulic lime.
Fat lime makes best plaster as they
yields good putty after slaking,
hydraulic lime yields harder and
stronger plaster, but it may unslaked
particles which may slake slowly.
Mortar foe lime plaster is usually
prepared by mixing sand and lime in
equal proportions. Cement in small
quantity is sometimes to the mixture
to improve its strength.
 Cement plaster

Cement plaster is usually applied in one

coat.
The thickness of the coat can be 12mm,
15mm or 20mm depending upon the
site condition and type of building
Sometimes, when the thickness of
plaster is more than 15mm or when it is
desired to have a finer finish is applied
in two coats.
 Stucco plaster

Stucco is the name given to a

decorative type of plaster which gives
an excellent finish.
Stucco plaster can be used for interior
as well as exterior surfaces.
It is usually laid in three coats making
the total thickness of the plaster to
about 25mm
The first coat is called the scratch coat,
the second a finer coat or brown coat
and the third is called the white coat or
finishing coat
Paints and Varnishes
 Paints
Paints are used to protect metals, timber or plastered surfaces
from the corrosive effects of weather, heat, moisture or gases etc.,
and to improve their appearance.
 Properties of paint
There are number of ways to judge paint quality
Wear ability
Covering ability
Ease of cleaning
Protection of the substrate
Environmentally friendly
Aesthetic
Practical and cost effective
Defects in painting
Fading:
The gradual loss of colour is known as fading.
this may be due to the effect of sun rays
Flaking or Peeling:
Due to the poor adhesion, pain
may peel off from the surface

Blistering:
This is caused by water vapour,
which is trapped behind the
painted surface.it may occur due
to imperfect seasoning of
timber
Running:
The paint runs back and leaves
some areas of surface
uncovered. This defect occurs
when surface is too thickly
painted sagging will occur

Wrinkling:
If the horizontal surface is too
thickly painted wrinkling will
occur.
Efflorescence:
Efflorescence or formation of
white powdery deposit on walls
after painting is caused due to
salts present in the building
material like brick and mortar.

Brush marks:
Brush marks are caused due to
under-thinning of paints or due
to poor application of the final
coat of paint or due to poor
quality brush
 Varnish
A transparent solution of resinous substance in linseed oil,
turpentine or in alcohol is called varnish
 Characteristics of a Good Varnish
It should dry rapidly
It should form a hard film on drying.
It should not crack on drying
It should be durable and weather resistant.
It should give uniform and pleasing appearance.
It should not hide the natural grains of the inner surface of timber
Types of Varnish

Oil varnish
Spar varnish
Flat varnish
Asphalt varnish
Spirit varnish
Damp proof course (DPC)
Damp proof course
Dampness is a common problem in building.
It refers to access and penetration of
moisture content into the building through
its walls, floors roof etc..,
It is important to take measures to prevent
dampness
Such measures is called damp proofing
Water proofing is a treatment of the surface
or structure in a building to prevent leakage
 Material used for damping
Hot bitumen:
Hot bitumen, 3mm thick may be applied
on bedding of mortar or concrete

Mastic asphalt:
Semi- rigid material obtained by heating
asphalt with sand and mineral filters. It
is laid on mortar or concrete bed

Bituminous felt:
Flexible material available in rolls. It is laid
on flat mortar finish surfaces.
Principles of damp Proofing
Mortar bed prepared to receive damp-proof course
should be levelled
The horizontal damp proofing course should cover the
full width of wall excluding rendering
If the sheets or mastic asphalt are used, the gap should
not be less than mm at any point.
At joints and corners, damp proof course should be
continuous.
Damp proofing course should not be kept exposed on
the wall surface
At vertical and horizontal junctions, damp proof course
should be continuous and a cement mortar fillet of
about 75mm should cover joints
What is termite proofing material
In building construction, various wooden materials are
used.
These have tendency to be attacked by termite over a
period if time.
Hence, in order to prevent decay of materials termite
proofing is required
 Different types of Termites and Methods of
Controlling them
Subterranean termite:
They require contact with soil
They are mainly responsible for
damaging building
They build nest in a form of colony
and their growth is very fast

Dry wood termite:

They do not require contact with
soil
They typically live in hardwood,
wooden flooring, etc..,
They cause damage at a slower rate
than subterranean termites.
Methods of controlling Subterranean termite:
Termiticides:
They are applied on the wood
directly
They are applied on foundations of
homes

Bait devices:
They are mainly used when it is not
feasible to apply termiticides.
They are mainly used near walls
and water sources.
Wood treatment:
When a dry wood termite colony is
limited, direct wood treatment can
be effective.
For this treatment, a pest control
expert applies a liquid insecticide
to the surface of the wood.

Structural Fumigation:
It is used when a termite attack
includes multiple colonies in and
around a home
In this process, a gas is pumped
which penetrates through all cracks
where termites are present
Construction joints
 Joints in buildings
All building materials expand or contract with change in
temperature and variation in moisture contents. Thus, major
dimensional changes are caused in structure due to expansion or
contraction of materials used in their construction
The magnitude of three changes varies with the type of material
used.
To overcome this problem, the large and multi-storied buildings
may either be constructed monolithically with heavy reinforcement
to link each of their component parts or they may be provided with
a number of joints
Joints are usually provided in large or multi-storied buildings, but
joints should not be provided in shell structure and certain other
rigid structures where provision of joints interferes with the rigidity
of structure.
 Types of joints
Contraction joints:
The joints introduced in concrete structures to localize
shrinkage movements are known as contraction joints
The contraction joints are in the form of separations or planes
of weakness.
The function of these joints is to localize shrinkage movements
which would otherwise lead unsightly cracks.
Contraction joints may be any of the following types.
a. Complete Contraction joints:
In this type of contraction joint, bond between the adjacent
section of a structure may be broken completely by painting
one face with a bituminous material or by setting a layer of
waterproof paper or roofing felt against the face of the section
before casting the next adjacent section
b. partial Contraction joints:
In this type of contraction joint, the reinforcement is continued
across the joint. Due to presence of reinforcement at such joints
is usually very small.
These contraction joints are provided in concrete section where
structural stability is also required in addition to localize
shrinkage movements

c. Dump joints:
In this type of contraction joint, a plane of weakness is created
by forming a groove in either or each of the surface of concrete
structure.
The total depth of such a groove is one-third to one-fifth of the
thickness of the concrete section.
These contraction joints are used more particularly in thin
section of concrete such as floor slab, roof slabs, etc..,
2. Sliding joints:
The joints provided between the two parts enabling their
movements freely in both are planes are known as sliding joints.
Theses joints are usually formed by applying a layer of plaster to
one of the surfaces and finishing it smooth so as to act seat of
the sliding joint.
The seat is then allowed to be hardened and covered with the
required thickness of bituminous materials or otherwise treated
as specified to form a slip plane before the other portion is cast
on it.
3. Construction joints:
The joints provided at location where construction stops for any
reason and when their location does not coincide with that of
expansion or contraction joints are called construction joints.
These joints are constructed in similar manner as contraction
joints but these joints are not intended to accommodate
movement due to contraction.
4. Expansion joints:
The joints provided to accommodate the expansion of adjacent
parts in a building are known as expansion joints.
These joints essentially consists of a space between the
adjacent [parts of a structure and may sometimes be provided
with the load transmitting devices between the parts.
They are generally filled with expansion joint filler of approved
quality
S.No. Item and description Spacing of expansion joints
1 (a) Load bearing walls with cross walls at intervals. 30m intervals
Traditional type of one-brick thick or more
(b) Walls warehouse type construction (without Expansion joints win walls
cross-walls) at 30m maximum intervals.
Control joints over centre
of openings may be
provided at half the spacing
of expansion joints
2 Chajjas, balconies and parapets. 6 to 12m intervals
3 Roofs 20 to 30 m intervals and at
(a) Ordinary roof slabs of RCC protected by layers changes in direction as in
of mud phuska or other insulating media in L,T,H and V shaped
framed construction. structures
(b) Thin Unprotected slabs 15m intervals
S.No. Item and description Spacing of expansion joints
4 Frames : Corners of L,T,H and V
Joints in structure through slabs, beams, column shaped structures at 30m
etc.., dividing the building into two independent intervals in long uniform
structural units structures
5 coping Corresponding to joints in
the roof slabs
Scaffolding and centring
 Scaffolding
It is a temporary structure used to support a work crew and
materials to aid in the construction.
Maintenance and repair of building, bridges and all other man
made structures.
There are four major types of scaffolding
i. Brick-layer or single scaffolding
ii. Masons scaffolding or double scaffolding
iii. Needle scaffolding or cantilever
iv. Steel scaffolding.
Brick-layer or single scaffolding
Masons scaffolding or double scaffolding
Needle scaffolding or cantilever
Steel scaffolding
 Centering
Part of formwork which supports the horizontal surface is called as
centering i.e., Beams bottom and slab
It is also used for bottom surface of sunshade
Steel Centering
Wooden Centering