General Chemistry: Atoms First: The Structure and Stability of Atoms

John E. McMurry • Robert C.
Fay
General Chemistry: Atoms First
Chapter 2
The Structure and Stability of Atoms
Lecture Notes
Alan D. Earhart
Southeast Community College • Lincoln, NE
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.

Conservation of Mass and the
Law of Definite Proportions
chemical formula
2HgO 2Hg + O2
chemical equation
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/3

Chapter 2/4
Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither
created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
Aqueous solutions of mercury(II) nitrate and
potassium iodide will react to form a precipitate of
mercury(II) iodide and aqueous potassium iodide.
3.25 g + 3.32 g = 6.57 g
Hg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) HgI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
4.55 g + 2.02 g = 6.57 g

Law of Definite Proportions: Different samples of
a pure chemical compound always contain the
same proportion of elements by mass.
By mass, water is: 88.8 % oxygen

11.2 % hydrogen

Law of Multiple Proportions and
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Law of Multiple Proportions: Elements can combine
in different ways to form different compounds, with
mass ratios that are small whole-number multiples of
each other.
nitric oxide: 8 grams oxygen per 7 grams nitrogen
nitrous oxide: 16 grams oxygen per 7 grams nitrogen

Law of Multiple Proportions: Elements can combine
in different ways to form different compounds, with
mass ratios that are small whole-number multiples of
each other.

• Elements are made up of tiny particles called atoms.
• Each element is characterized by the mass of its

atoms. Atoms of the same element have the same
mass, but atoms of different elements have different
masses.
• Chemical combination of elements to make different

chemical compounds occurs when atoms join together
in small whole-number ratios.
• Chemical reactions only rearrange the way that atoms

are combined in chemical compounds; the atoms
themselves don’t change.
Atomic Structure: Electrons
Cathode-Ray Tubes: J. J. Thomson (1856–1940)

proposed that cathode rays must consist of tiny,
negatively charged particles which we now call
electrons.
Atomic Structure: Electrons
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

Atomic Structure: Protons and
Neutrons
Atomic Nucleus: When Ernest Rutherford (1871–
1937) directed a beam of alpha () particles at a
thin gold foil, he found that almost all the particles
passed through the foil undeflected. A very small
number, however, (about 1 in every 20,000) were
deflected at an angle and a few actually bounced
back toward the particle source.
Rutherford explained his results by proposing that

a metal atom must be almost entirely empty space
and have its mass concentrated in a tiny central
core that he called the nucleus.

Neutrons
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment
Neutrons
The mass of the atom is

primarily in the nucleus.

Neutrons
The charge of the

proton is opposite in
sign but equal to that of
the electron.
Atomic Numbers
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an

atom’s nucleus. Equivalent to the number of
electrons around the atom’s nucleus.
Mass Number (A): The sum of the number of

protons and the number of neutrons in an atom’s
nucleus.
Isotope: Atoms with identical atomic numbers but

different mass numbers.

Atomic Numbers
carbon-12
mass number
12 6 protons
6 C 6 electrons
6 neutrons
atomic number
carbon-14
mass number
14 6 protons
6 C 6 electrons
8 neutrons
atomic number
Atomic Masses and the Mole
The mass of 1 atom of carbon-12 is defined to be 12 amu.
Atomic Mass: The weighted average of the isotopic

masses of the element’s naturally occurring isotopes.
Why is the atomic mass of the element carbon 12.01 amu?
carbon-12: 98.89 % natural abundance 12 amu
carbon-13: 1.11 % natural abundance 13.0034 amu
mass of carbon = (12 amu)(0.9889) + (13.0034 amu)(0.0111)
= 11.87 amu + 0.144 amu
= 12.01 amu

The Mole
• Mole(mol) - the amount of a substance that
contains the same number of entities as
there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• This amount is 6.022x1023. It is called

Avogadro’s number and is abbreviated as N.
One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022x1023

entities (to four significant figures)
eggs
shoes
Molar mass is the mass of 1 mole of marbles in grams
atoms
For any element
atomic mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
For any molecule

molecular mass (amu) = molar mass (grams)
1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g

1 12C atom = 12.00 amu
One mole of common substances.
Oxygen
32.00 g
Water
18.02 g
CaCO3
100.09 g Copper
63.55 g
Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of
the atomic masses (in amu) in a molecule.
1S 32.07 amu
2O + 2 x 16.00 amu
SO2 SO2 64.07 amu
1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu

1 mole SO2 = 64.07 g SO2
6.022 x 1023 Molecules of SO2
Avogadro’s Number (NA): One mole of any element

contains 6.022 141 x 1023 atoms.
Molar Mass: One mole of any element is the amount

whose mass in grams is numerically equivalent to its
atomic mass.

Avogadro’s Number (NA): One mole of any element

contains 6.022 141 x 1023 atoms.
Molar Mass: One mole of any element is the amount

whose mass in grams is numerically equivalent to its
atomic mass.
Silicon: 1 mole = 28.0855 g
6.022 141 x 1023 molecules = 28.0855 g

Chapter 2/30
Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear Chemistry: The study of the properties and

changes of atomic nuclei.
Nuclear Reaction: A reaction that changes an atomic

nucleus.
Chapter 2/31
Nuclear Chemistry
Comparisons Between Nuclear and Chemical Reactions

• A nuclear reaction changes an atom’s nucleus. A chemical
reaction only involves a change in the way that different
atoms are combined.
• Different isotopes of an elements have essentially the same

behavior in chemical reactions, but often have completely
different behavior in nuclear reactions.
• The energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction is far

greater than that accompanying a chemical reaction.

Nuclear Chemistry
Radioactivity: The spontaneous decay and emission

of radiation from an unstable nucleus.
Radioisotope: A radioactive isotope.

Nuclear Chemistry
Chapter 2/34
Nuclear Reactions and
Radioactivity
Alpha () Radiation
An alpha particle is a helium-4 nucleus (2 protons and
2 neutrons).
Alpha particle, 
Radioactivity
Beta () Radiation
A beta particle is an electron.
Beta particle,  -
Radioactivity
Gamma () Radiation
A gamma particle is a high-energy photon
Positron Emission
A positron has the same mass as an electron but an
opposite charge. It can be thought of as a “positive
electron.”
Positron,  +
Radioactivity
Electron Capture
A process in which the nucleus captures an inner-
shell electron, thereby converting a proton to a
neutron.

Radioactivity
Chapter 2/39
Nuclear Stability
• Every element in the periodic table has at least one

radioactive isotope.
• Hydrogen is the only element whose most abundant

stable isotope, hydrogen-1, contains more protons (1)
than neutrons (0).
• The ratio of neutrons to protons gradually increases,

giving a curved appearance to the band of stability.
• All isotopes heavier than bismuth-209 are radioactive,

even though they may decay slowly and be stable
enough to occur naturally.
Nuclear Stability
This process decreases the neutron/proton ratio:
Beta emission: Neutron Proton +  -
These processes increase the neutron/proton ratio:
Positron emission: Neutron Proton +  +
Electron capture: Proton + Electron Neutron

A A-4 4
Alpha emission: Z
X Z-2
Y + 2
He

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John E. McMurry • Robert C.

General Chemistry: Atoms First

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/3

3.25 g + 3.32 g = 6.57 g

Hg(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) HgI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

4.55 g + 2.02 g = 6.57 g

By mass, water is: 88.8 % oxygen

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/6

nitric oxide: 8 grams oxygen per 7 grams nitrogen

nitrous oxide: 16 grams oxygen per 7 grams nitrogen

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/7

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/8

• Each element is characterized by the mass of its

• Chemical combination of elements to make different

• Chemical reactions only rearrange the way that atoms

Cathode-Ray Tubes: J. J. Thomson (1856–1940)

Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment

Rutherford explained his results by proposing that

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/12

The mass of the atom is

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/15

The charge of the

Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an

Mass Number (A): The sum of the number of

Isotope: Atoms with identical atomic numbers but

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/17

The mass of 1 atom of carbon-12 is defined to be 12 amu.

Atomic Mass: The weighted average of the isotopic

Why is the atomic mass of the element carbon 12.01 amu?

carbon-12: 98.89 % natural abundance 12 amu

carbon-13: 1.11 % natural abundance 13.0034 amu

mass of carbon = (12 amu)(0.9889) + (13.0034 amu)(0.0111)

= 11.87 amu + 0.144 amu

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/20

• This amount is 6.022x1023. It is called

One mole (1 mol) contains 6.022x1023

For any molecule

1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g

1 molecule SO2 = 64.07 amu

Avogadro’s Number (NA): One mole of any element

Molar Mass: One mole of any element is the amount

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/28

Avogadro’s Number (NA): One mole of any element

Molar Mass: One mole of any element is the amount

Silicon: 1 mole = 28.0855 g

6.022 141 x 1023 molecules = 28.0855 g

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/29

Nuclear Chemistry: The study of the properties and

Nuclear Reaction: A reaction that changes an atomic

Comparisons Between Nuclear and Chemical Reactions

• Different isotopes of an elements have essentially the same

• The energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction is far

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/32

Radioactivity: The spontaneous decay and emission

Radioisotope: A radioactive isotope.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/33

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Chapter 2/38

• Every element in the periodic table has at least one