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Modulasj Momenter

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35 views23 pages

Modulasj Momenter

Uploaded by

ernavneet85
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Angle Modulation

 Angle modulation includes both frequency


and phase modulation.
 FM is used for: radio broadcasting, sound
signal in TV, two-way fixed and mobile
radio systems, cellular telephone systems,
and satellite communications.
 PM is used extensively in data
communications and for indirect FM.
Comparison of FM or PM with AM
Advantages over AM:
1) better SNR, and more resistant to noise
2) efficient - class C amplifier can be used, and less
power is required to angle modulate
3) capture effect reduces mutual interference
Disadvantages:
1) much wider bandwidth is required
2) slightly more complex circuitry is needed
PLL FM Detector
• PLL and quadrature detectors are
commonly found in modern FM receivers.
Phase
Detector
FM IF Demodulated
Signal  LPF output

VCO
Quadrature Detector
• Both the quadrature and the PLL detector
are conveniently found as IC packages.
Radio-Wave Propagation
• Radio waves, infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet, X rays, and gamma rays are all
different forms of electromagnetic radiation.
• The waves propagate as transverse
electromagnetic waves (TEM) - i.e. the
electric field, the magnetic field, and the
direction of travel of the waves are all
mutually perpendicular.
Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

ti o n
ag a z
ro p
ofP
y tio n
i r e c
D
Magnetic Field

Electric Field
x
Speed & Wavelength of em Waves

• The speed of propagation  and the


wavelength () of an electromagnetic wave
are given, respectively, by:
c v
v and  
r f
where c = 3x108 m/s, r = medium’s relative permittivity
or dielectric constant, and f = frequency of wave in Hz.
Reflection
Radio waves behave like light waves:
• They reflect from a surface where the angle of
incidence, i = the angle of reflection, r . To
minimize reflective losses, the surface should be
an ideal conductor and smooth.
Incident Reflected
Normal
Ray Ray
i r
Conductor
Refraction
• Radio waves will bend or refract when they go
from one medium with refractive index, n1 to
another with refractive index, n2. The angles
involved are given by :
sin 1 n2 r 2
 
1 sin  2 n1 r1
2 where r = relative
n1<n2 permittivity of medium
Diffraction
• Diffraction is the phenomenon which results in
radio waves that normally travel in a straight line
to bend around an obstacle.
Direction of wave propagation

Obstacle
Ground-Wave Propagation
• At frequencies up to about 2 MHz, the most
important method of propagation is by ground
waves which are vertically polarized. They follow
the curvature of the earth to propagate far beyond
the horizon. Relatively high power is required.
Direction of wave travel
Increasing
Tilt
Earth
Ionospheric Propagation
• HF radio waves are returned from the F-layer of
the ionosphere by a form of refraction.
• The highest frequency that is returned to earth in
the vertical direction is called the critical
frequency, fc.
• The highest frequency that returns to earth over a
given path is called the maximum usable frequency
(MUF). Because of the general instability of the
ionosphere, the optimum working frequency
(OWF) = 0.85 MUF, is used instead.
Sky-Wave Propagation

F-Layer
• From geometry
(assuming flat earth):
i
d = 2hv tan i

hv
• From theory (secant
law):
Earth
MUF = fc sec i
d
Sky-wave Propagation: Pros & Cons
• Sky-wave propagation allows communication over
great distances with simple equipment and
reasonable power levels : 100 W to a few kW.
• However, HF communication via the ionosphere
is noisy and uncertain. It is also prone to phase
shifting and frequency-selective fading. For
instance, the phase shift and signal attenuation
may be different for the upper and lower
sidebands of the same signal. Data transmission is
restricted to very low rates.
Space-Wave Propagation
• Most terrestrial communications in the VHF or
higher frequency range use direct, line-of-sight, or
tropospheric radio waves. The approximate
maximum distance of communication is given by:

d  17  hT  hR 
where d = max. distance in km
hT = height of the TX antenna in m
hR = height of the RX antenna in m
Space-Wave Propagation (cont’d)

• The radio horizon is greater than the optical


horizon by about one third due to refraction of the
atmosphere.
• Reflections from a relatively smooth surface, such
as a body of water, could result in partial
cancellation of the direct signal - a phenomenon
known as fading. Also, large objects, such as
buildings and hills, could cause multipath
distortion from many reflections.
Optical Fibre Communications
• Advantages over metallic/coaxial cable:
– much wider bandwidth and practically interference-free
– lower loss and light weight
– more resistive to environmental effects
– safer and easier to install
– almost impossible to tap into a fibre cable
– potentially lower in cost over the long term
• Disadvantages:
– higher initial cost in installation & more expensive to
repair/maintain
Optical Fibre Link
Transmitter
Input Coder or Light Source-to-fibre
Signal Converter Source Interface

Fibre-optic Cable

Fibre-to-light Light Amplifier/Shaper Output


Interface Detector Decoder
Receiver
Types Of Optical Fibre
Light n1 core
ray n2 cladding
Single-mode step-index fibre no air

n1 core
n2 cladding
Multimode step-index fibre no air
Variable
n
Multimode graded-index fibre Index porfile

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