COMPUTER

SYSTEM
ORGANIZATIO
N
Computer System
• Computer
→it is as fast electronic calculating
device that accept digitized information,
process it according to a list of
internally store instruction and produce
an output or useful information to the
outside world.
• Computer System
→it refers to the computer
organization and architecture.

Elements of Computer System:

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. People ware/ users
• Components of Computer
Input/Output Unit (I/O unit)
→ supervise and monitor the function
performed by the microcomputer and
external devices.
a) Input Device
→ computer accept coded
information through input unit which read
the data.
Examples: Keyboard, mouse, etc.
 b) Output Device
→ its function is to send processed
result to the outside world.

• Memory
→ consists of large number of data
locations that stores both the data and
the program that are currently used by
the CPU.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
→ control the sequence of all information
exchanges within the computer and the
outside world.
a) Control Unit
→ the memory ALU and
input/output units store and process
information and perform input/output
operations. It acts like the supervisor
seeing that the things are done in proper
fashion.
The control unit determines the sequence
in which computer programs and
instruction are executed.

b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

→ most computer operations are
executed in this unit.
Bus Structure

1. Single Bus Structure

Input Output Memory Processor

Figure 1.3. Single-bus structure.

2) Two-Bus Structure

input

cpu memory

output
Von Neumann Architecture
→ known as three bus-system

DATA BUS

Control
MEMORY CPU I/O UNIT
Bus Bus

ADDRESS BUS
SYSTEM BUS
A shared pathway, a set of wire or
physical path that serves to interconnect
the registers, I/O unit, CPU and the memory
unit
DATA BUS – it carries the information
being transmitted
ADDRESS BUS – it identifies where the
information is being sent
CONTROL BUS – it describes aspects of
how the information is being sent, and in
what manner
Harvard Architecture

Program Data
Program Data
Memory
Address CPU Address
Memory
 The Harvard Architecture uses
physically separate memories for their
instruction and data, required dedicated
buses for each of them. Instructions and
operands can therefore be fetched
simultaneously.
Different program and data widths are
possible allowing program and data
memory to be better optimized to the
architectural.
Harvard Architecture are frequently used
in:
→ specialized digital signal processor
commonly used in audio or video
processing products.
→ electronic application such as the PIC
(programmable interface controller/
programmable intelligent computer).
Basic Structures of Computer

• Functional Units
• Basic Operational Concepts
• Bus structures
Content Coverage
 Functional Units
Computer consists of three main parts:

• Processor (CPU)
• Main-memory system
• I/O system
The information handled by a computer:
• Instruction
→ Govern the transfer information within a
computer as well as between the computer
and its I/O devices.
→ Specify the arithmetic and logic
operations to be performed.
• Data
→ Numbers and encoded characters that
are used as operands by the instructions.
Programs
→it is a list of instructions that performs a task.
• The program usually is stored in a memory called
program memory.
• The computer is completely controlled by the
stored program, except for possible external
interruption by an operator or by I/O devices
connected to the machine.
• Information handled by a computer must be
encoded in a suitable format. Most present-day
hardware employs digital circuits that have only
two stable states, 0 (OFF) and 1 (ON).
Memory Unit
Memory
The storage area in which programs are kept
when they are running and that contains the data
needed by the running programs.
Types of memory:
• Volatile memory → storage that retains data only
if it is receiving power, such as dynamic random
access memory (DRAM).
• Nonvolatile memory → a form of memory that
retains data even in the absence of a power
source and that is used to store programs
between runs, such as flash memory.
 Two Classes of Storage:
• Primary memory
→ Also called main memory. Volatile
memory used to hold programs while they
are running; typically consists of DRAM in
today’s computers.
• Secondary memory
→ Nonvolatile memory used to store
programs and data between runs; typically
consists of magnetic disks in today’s
computers.
 REGISTERS Memory
Size Access
CACHE Time
PRIMARY
MEMORY

SECONDARY MEMORY
• The storage cells are processed in groups of
fixed size called words.
• The number of bits in each word is often
referred to as the word length of the computer
• Typical word length from 16 to 64 bits
• The capacity of the memory is one factor that
characterizes the size of a computer
• The time required to access one word is called
the memory access time.
Operation of Memory
• Each memory location has a unique address
• Address from an instruction is copied to the
MAR which finds the location in memory
• CPU determines if it is a store or retrieval
• Transfer takes place between the MDR and
memory
• MDR is a two way register
Memory Capacity
• Determined by two factors
1. Number of bits in the MAR
• LMC = 100 (00 to 99)
• 2K where K = width of the register in bits
2. Size of the address portion of the instruction
• 4 bits allows 16 locations
• 8 bits allows 256 locations
• 32 bits allows 4,294,967,296 or 4 GB
• Important for performance
– Insufficient memory can cause a processor to
work at 50% below performance
 CPU: Three (3) Major Components
• Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
• Control Unit (CU)
• Registers
– Example: Program counter (PC) or
instruction pointer determines next
instruction for execution
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• Most computer operations are executed in
ALU of the processor.
• Load the operands into memory – bring
them to the processor – perform operation
in ALU – store the result back to memory
or retain in the processor.
• Registers
• Fast control of ALU
Control Unit
• All computer operations are controlled by the control
unit.
• The timing signals that govern the I/O transfers are
also generated by the control unit.
• Control unit is usually distributed throughout the
machine instead of standing alone.

Operations of a computer:
 Accept information in the form of programs and data
through an input unit and store it in the memory
 Fetch the information stored in the memory, under
program control, into an ALU, where the information is
processed
 Output the processed information through an output unit
Registers
• Small, permanent storage locations within the
CPU used for a particular purpose
• Manipulated directly by the Control Unit
• Wired for specific function
• Size in bits or bytes (not MB like memory)
• Can hold data, an address or an instruction
• How many registers does the LMC have?
Computer Components: Top Level View
Special-Purpose Registers
• Program Count Register (PC)
– Also called instruction pointer
• Instruction Register (IR)
– Stores instruction fetched from memory
• Memory Address Register (MAR)
• Memory Data Register (MDR)
• Status Registers
– Status of CPU and currently executing program
– Flags (one bit Boolean variable) to track condition
like arithmetic carry and overflow, power failure,
internal computer error
Relationship between MAR,
MDR and Memory
Address Data
MAR-MDR Example
Instruction Cycle
• Two steps:
– Fetch
– Execute
Fetch Cycle
• Program Counter (PC) holds address of
next instruction to fetch
• Processor fetches instruction from
memory location pointed to by PC
• Increment PC
– Unless told otherwise
• Instruction loaded into Instruction
Register (IR)
• Processor interprets instruction and
performs required actions
Execute Cycle
• Processor-memory
– data transfer between CPU and main memory
• Processor I/O
– Data transfer between CPU and I/O module
• Data processing
– Some arithmetic or logical operation on data
• Control
– Alteration of sequence of operations
– e.g. jump
• Combination of above
Characteristics of Hypothetical Machine
LOAD FETCH /EXECUTE CYCLE
1. PC -> MAR Transfer the address from the
PC to the MAR
2. MDR -> IR Transfer the instruction to the
IR
3. IR(address) -> MAR Address portion of the
instruction loaded in MAR
4. MDR -> A Actual data copied into the
accumulator
5. PC + 1 -> PC Program Counter incremented
STORE FETCH /EXECUTE CYCLE
1. PC -> MAR Transfer the address from the
PC to the MAR
2. MDR -> IR Transfer the instruction to the
IR
3. IR(address) -> MAR Address portion of the
instruction loaded in MAR
4. A -> MDR* Accumulator copies data into
MDR
5. PC + 1 -> PC Program Counter incremented
*Notice how Step #4 differs for LOAD and STORE
ADD FETCH /EXECUTE CYCLE
1. PC -> MAR Transfer the address from the
PC to the MAR
2. MDR -> IR Transfer the instruction to the
IR
3. IR(address) -> MAR Address portion of the
instruction loaded in MAR
4. A + MDR -> A Contents of MDR added to
contents of accumulator
5. PC + 1 -> PC Program Counter incremented
SUBTRACT IN OUT HALT
PC  MAR PC  MAR PC  MAR PC  MAR
MDR  IR MDR  IR MDR  IR MDR  IR
IR[addr]  IOR  A A  IOR
MAR
PC + 1  PC + 1 
A – MDR  A PC PC
PC + 1  PC BRANCH on Condition
BRANCH
PC  MAR PC  MAR

MDR  IR MDR  IR

IR[addr]  If condition false: PC + 1  PC

PC If condition true: IR[addr]  PC
Ex.
Suppose that the following instructions are found at
the given locations in memory:
17 LDA 90
18 ADD 91
90 1000
91 3020
Show the contents of each register as each step of the fetch
-execute cycle performed for instruction at address 17.
 
PC MAR MDR IR A
PC  MAR 17 17 000 000 0000
MDR  IR 17 17 590 590 0000
IR[address]  MAR 17 90 590 590 0000
MDR  A 17 90 1000 590 1000
PC + 1  PC 18 90 1000 590 1000