Digital Communication

Lecture-1, Prof. Dr. Habibullah

Jamal
Under Graduate, Spring 2008
Course Books
Text: Digital Communications: Fundamentals and Applications, By “Bernard Sklar”,
Prentice Hall, 2nd ed, 2001.  
Probability and Random Signals for Electrical Engineers, Neon Garcia
References:
Digital Communications, Fourth Edition, J.G. Proakis, McGraw Hill, 2000. 
Course Outline
 Review of Probability
 Signal and Spectra (Chapter 1)
 Formatting and Base band Modulation (Chapter 2)
 Base band Demodulation/Detection (Chapter 3)
 Channel Coding (Chapter 6, 7 and 8)
 Band pass Modulation and Demod./Detect.
(Chapter 4)
 Spread Spectrum Techniques (Chapter 12)
 Synchronization (Chapter 10)
 Source Coding (Chapter 13)
 Fading Channels (Chapter 15)
Today’s Goal

 Review of Basic Probability

 Digital Communication Basic
Communication

 Main purpose of communication is to transfer information

from a source to a recipient via a channel or medium.

 Basic block diagram of a communication system:

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver

Recipient
Brief Description
 Source: analog or digital
 Transmitter: transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator, power
amp., antenna
 Channel: e.g. cable, optical fibre, free space
 Receiver: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator, power
amplifier, transducer
 Recipient: e.g. person, (loud) speaker, computer
 Types of information
Voice, data, video, music, email etc.

 Types of communication systems

Public Switched Telephone Network (voice,fax,modem)
Satellite systems
Radio,TV broadcasting
Cellular phones
Computer networks (LANs, WANs, WLANs)
Information Representation
 Communication system converts information into electrical
electromagnetic/optical signals appropriate for the transmission
medium.

 Analog systems convert analog message into signals that can

propagate through the channel.

 Digital systems convert bits(digits, symbols) into signals

 Computers naturally generate information as characters/bits

 Most information can be converted into bits
 Analog signals converted to bits by sampling and quantizing
(A/D conversion)
 Why digital?
 Digital techniques need to distinguish between discrete symbols
allowing regeneration versus amplification

 Good processing techniques are available for digital signals, such

as medium.

 Data compression (or source coding)

 Error Correction (or channel coding)(A/D conversion)
 Equalization
 Security

 Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques

 Basic Digital Communication Transformations
 Formatting/Source Coding
 Transforms source info into digital symbols (digitization)
 Selects compatible waveforms (matching function)
 Introduces redundancy which facilitates accurate decoding
despite errors
 It is essential for reliable communication
 Modulation/Demodulation
 Modulation is the process of modifying the info signal to
facilitate transmission
 Demodulation reverses the process of modulation. It
involves the detection and retrieval of the info signal
 Types
 Coherent: Requires a reference info for detection
 Noncoherent: Does not require reference phase information
Basic Digital Communication Transformations
 Coding/Decoding
Translating info bits to transmitter data symbols
Techniques used to enhance info signal so that they are
less vulnerable to channel impairment (e.g. noise, fading,
jamming, interference)
 Two Categories
 Waveform Coding
 Produces new waveforms with better performance
 Structured Sequences
 Involves the use of redundant bits to determine the
occurrence of error (and sometimes correct it)
 Multiplexing/Multiple Access Is synonymous with resource
sharing with other users
 Frequency Division Multiplexing/Multiple Access
(FDM/FDMA
Performance Metrics
 Analog Communication Systems
 Metric is fidelity: want mˆ (t )  m(t )
 SNR typically used as performance metric

 Digital Communication Systems

 P  p( bˆ  b) 
 Metrics are data rate (R bps) and probability of bit error
b

 Symbols already known at the receiver

 Without noise/distortion/sync. problem, we will never
make bit errors
Main Points
 Transmitters modulate analog messages or bits in case of a DCS
for transmission over a channel.

 Receivers recreate signals or bits from received signal (mitigate

channel effects)

 Performance metric for analog systems is fidelity, for digital it is

the bit rate and error probability.
Why Digital Communications?
 Easy to regenerate the distorted signal
 Regenerative repeaters along the transmission path can
detect a digital signal and retransmit a new, clean (noise
free) signal
 These repeaters prevent accumulation of noise along the
path
 This is not possible with analog communication
systems
 Two-state signal representation
 The input to a digital system is in the form of a
sequence of bits (binary or M_ary)
 Immunity to distortion and interference
 Digital communication is rugged in the sense that it is more
immune to channel noise and distortion
Why Digital Communications?
 Hardware is more flexible
 Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits

the use of microprocessors, mini-processors, digital

switching and VLSI
 Shorter design and production cycle
 Low cost

 The use of LSI and VLSI in the design of components and

systems have resulted in lower cost
 Easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital

signals
 Digital multiplexing techniques – Time & Code Division

Multiple Access - are easier to implement than analog

techniques such as Frequency Division Multiple Access
Why Digital Communications?
 Can combine different signal types – data, voice, text, etc.
 Data communication in computers is digital in nature
whereas voice communication between people is analog in
nature
 The two types of communication are difficult to combine
over the same medium in the analog domain.
 Using digital techniques, it is possible to combine
both format for transmission through a common
medium
 Encryption and privacy techniques are easier to
implement
 Better overall performance
 Digital communication is inherently more efficient than
analog in realizing the exchange of SNR for bandwidth
 Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low rates
and high fidelity as well as privacy
Why Digital Communications?
Disadvantages
 Requires reliable “synchronization”
 Requires A/D conversions at high rate
 Requires larger bandwidth
 Nongraceful degradation
 Performance Criteria
 Probability of error or Bit Error Rate
Goals in Communication System Design
 To maximize transmission rate, R
 To maximize system utilization, U
 To minimize bit error rate, Pe
 To minimize required systems bandwidth, W
 To minimize system complexity, Cx
 To minimize required power, Eb/No
Comparative Analysis of Analog and
Digital Communication
Digital Signal Nomenclature

 Information Source
 Discrete output values e.g. Keyboard
 Analog signal source e.g. output of a microphone
 Character
 Member of an alphanumeric/symbol (A to Z, 0 to 9)
 Characters can be mapped into a sequence of binary digits
using one of the standardized codes such as
 ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange
 EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
Digital Signal Nomenclature

 Digital Message
 Messages constructed from a finite number of symbols; e.g., printed
language consists of 26 letters, 10 numbers, “space” and several
punctuation marks. Hence a text is a digital message constructed from
about 50 symbols
 Morse-coded telegraph message is a digital message constructed from
two symbols “Mark” and “Space”
 M - ary
 A digital message constructed with M symbols
 Digital Waveform
 Current or voltage waveform that represents a digital symbol
 Bit Rate
 Actual rate at which information is transmitted per second
Digital Signal Nomenclature

 Baud Rate
 Refers to the rate at which the signaling elements are

transmitted, i.e. number of signaling elements per

second.

 Bit Error Rate

 The probability that one of the bits is in error or simply

the probability of error

1.2 Classification Of Signals
1. Deterministic and Random Signals
 A signal is deterministic means that there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.

 Deterministic waveforms are modeled by explicit mathematical

expressions, example:
x(t) = 5Cos(10t)
 A signal is random means that there is some degree of
uncertainty before the signal actually occurs.

 Random waveforms/ Random processes when examined over a

long period may exhibit certain regularities that can be described
in terms of probabilities and statistical averages.
2. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

 A signal x(t) is called periodic in time if there exists a constant

T0 > 0 such that

x(t) = x(t + T0 ) for - < t <  (1.2)

t denotes time
T0 is the period of x(t).
3. Analog and Discrete Signals

 An analog signal x(t) is a continuous function of time; that is, x(t)

is uniquely defined for all t

 A discrete signal x(kT) is one that exists only at discrete times; it

is characterized by a sequence of numbers defined for each
time, kT, where
k is an integer
T is a fixed time interval.
4. Energy and Power Signals

 The performance of a communication system depends on the

received signal energy; higher energy signals are detected more
reliably (with fewer errors) than are lower energy signals

 x(t) is classified as an energy signal if, and only if, it has nonzero
but finite energy (0 < Ex < ∞) for all time, where:
T/2 

lim  
2
Ex = x (t) dt = x 2 (t) dt (1.7)
T  T / 2 

 An energy signal has finite energy but zero average power.

 Signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic are

classified as energy signals
4. Energy and Power Signals

 Power is the rate at which energy is delivered.

 A signal is defined as a power signal if, and only if, it has finite
but nonzero power (0 < Px < ∞) for all time, where
T/2
1
lim 
2
Px = x (t) dt (1.8)
T  T T / 2

 Power signal has finite average power but infinite energy.

 As a general rule, periodic signals and random signals are

classified as power signals
5. The Unit Impulse Function

 Dirac delta function δ(t) or impulse function is an abstraction—an

infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width, and unity
weight (area under the pulse), concentrated at the point where its
argument is zero.

  (t) dt = 1

(1.9)

 (t) = 0 for t  0 (1.10)

 (t) is bounded at t  0 (1.11)

 Sifting or Sampling Property


 x(t )  (t-t

0 )dt = x(t 0 ) (1.12)
1.3 Spectral Density

 The spectral density of a signal characterizes the distribution of

the signal’s energy or power in the frequency domain.

 This concept is particularly important when considering filtering in

communication systems while evaluating the signal and noise at
the filter output.

 The energy spectral density (ESD) or the power spectral density

(PSD) is used in the evaluation.
1. Energy Spectral Density (ESD)
 Energy spectral density describes the signal energy per unit
bandwidth measured in joules/hertz.
 Represented as ψx(f), the squared magnitude spectrum
2
x( f ) X( f ) (1.14)
 According to Parseval’s theorem, the energy of x(t):
 

 x 2 (t) dt = 
2
Ex = |X(f)| df (1.13)
- -
 Therefore: 
Ex = 
-
x (f) df (1.15)
 The Energy spectral density is symmetrical in frequency about
origin and total energy of the signal x(t) can be expressed as:

E x = 2  x (f) df (1.16)
0
2. Power Spectral Density (PSD)
 The power spectral density (PSD) function Gx(f ) of the periodic
signal x(t) is a real, even, and nonnegative function of frequency
that gives the distribution of the power of x(t) in the frequency
domain.
 PSD is represented as: 
G x (f ) = 
|Cn |2 ( f  nf 0 )
n=-
(1.18)
 Whereas the average power of a periodic signal x(t) is
T /2
represented as: 1 0 
Px 
T0
2
 x (t) dt 
2
 |C
n=-
n |
(1.17)
T0 / 2
 Using PSD, the average normalized power of a real-valued
signal is represented as:
 
Px  G

x (f) df  2  G x (f) df
0
(1.19)
1.4 Autocorrelation
1. Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
 Correlation is a matching process; autocorrelation refers to the
matching of a signal with a delayed version of itself.
 Autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal x(t) is
defined as:

R x ( ) =  x(t) x (t +  ) dt

for - <  <  (1.21)

 The autocorrelation function Rx(τ) provides a measure of how

closely the signal matches a copy of itself as the copy is shifted
τ units in time.
 Rx(τ) is not a function of time; it is only a function of the time
difference τ between the waveform and its shifted copy.
1. Autocorrelation of an Energy Signal
 The autocorrelation function of a real-valued energy signal has
the following properties:

R x ( ) =R x (- ) symmetrical in about zero

R x ( )  R x (0) for all  maximum value occurs at the origin

R x ( )   x (f) autocorrelation and ESD form a

Fourier transform pair, as designated
by the double-headed arrows
value at the origin is equal to
the  signal
energy of the
R x (0)  

x 2 (t) dt
2. Autocorrelation of a Power Signal

 Autocorrelation function of a real-valued power signal x(t) is

defined as:
T /2
1
R x ( )  lim
T 

T T / 2
x(t) x (t +  ) dt for - <  <  (1.22)

 When the power signal x(t) is periodic with period T0, the
autocorrelation function can be expressed as
T0 / 2
1
R x ( ) 
T0 
T0 / 2
x(t) x (t +  ) dt for - <  < 
(1.23)
2. Autocorrelation of a Power Signal

 The autocorrelation function of a real-valued periodic signal has

the following properties similar to those of an energy signal:

R x ( ) =R x (- ) symmetrical in about zero

R x ( )  R x (0) for all  maximum value occurs at the origin

R x ( )  Gx (f) autocorrelation and PSD form a

Fourier transform pair
T0 / 2
1 value at the origin is equal to the
R x (0) 
T0 
 T0 / 2
x 2 (t) dt
average power of the signal
1.5 Random Signals
1. Random Variables
 All useful message signals appear random; that is, the receiver
does not know, a priori, which of the possible waveform have
been sent.

 Let a random variable X(A) represent the functional relationship

between a random event A and a real number.

 The (cumulative) distribution function FX(x) of the random variable

X is given by
(1.24)
FX ( x)  P ( X  x)
 Another useful function relating to the random variable X is the
probability density function (pdf)
(1.25)
dFX ( x )
PX ( x) 
dx
1.1 Ensemble Averages

The first moment of a
xp

m X  E{ X }  X ( x )dx probability distribution of a
 random variable X is called
mean value mX, or expected

value of a random variable X
E{ X 2 }  

x 2 p X ( x)dx  The second moment of a
probability distribution is the
mean-square value of X
var( X )  E{( X  m X ) 2 }  Central moments are the
moments of the difference

between X and mX and the
 

( x  m X ) 2 p X ( x)dx second central moment is the
variance of X
 Variance is equal to the
var( X )  E{ X 2 }  E{ X }2 difference between the mean-
square value and the square of
the mean
2. Random Processes

 A random process X(A, t) can be viewed as a function of two

variables: an event A and time.
1.5.2.1 Statistical Averages of a Random Process
 A random process whose distribution functions are continuous can
be described statistically with a probability density function (pdf).

 A partial description consisting of the mean and autocorrelation

function are often adequate for the needs of communication
systems.

 Mean of the random process X(t)

 :
E{ X (tk )}   xp

Xk ( x) dx  mX (tk ) (1.30)

 Autocorrelation function of the random process X(t)

(1.31)
RX (t1 , t2 )  E{ X (t1 ) X (t2 )}
1.5.5. Noise in Communication Systems
 The term noise refers to unwanted electrical signals that are
always present in electrical systems; e.g spark-plug ignition
noise, switching transients, and other radiating electromagnetic
signals.

 Can describe thermal noise as a zero-mean Gaussian random

process.

 A Gaussian process n(t) is a random function whose amplitude

at any arbitrary time t is statistically characterized by the
Gaussian probability density function
1  1 n  
2

p ( n)  exp     
 2  2     (1.40)
Noise in Communication Systems
 The normalized or standardized Gaussian density function of a
zero-mean process is obtained by assuming unit variance.
1.5.5.1 White Noise

 The primary spectral characteristic of thermal noise is that its

power spectral density is the same for all frequencies of interest
in most communication systems
 Power spectral density Gn(f )
N0 (1.42)
Gn ( f )  watts / hertz
2
 Autocorrelation function of white noise is

N0
Rn ( )   {Gn ( f )} 
1
 ( ) (1.43)
2
 The average power Pn of white noise is infinite

N0
p ( n)  

2
df   (1.44)
 The effect on the detection process of a channel with additive
white Gaussian noise (AWGN) is that the noise affects each
transmitted symbol independently.

 Such a channel is called a memoryless channel.

 The term “additive” means that the noise is simply superimposed

or added to the signal
 1.6 Signal Transmission through
Linear Systems

 A system can be characterized equally well in the time domain

or the frequency domain, techniques will be developed in both
domains

 The system is assumed to be linear and time invariant.

 It is also assumed that there is no stored energy in the system

at the time the input is applied
1.6.1. Impulse Response
 The linear time invariant system or network is characterized in the
time domain by an impulse response h (t ),to an input unit impulse
(t)
y (t )  h(t ) when x(t )   (t ) (1.45)
 The response of the network to an arbitrary input signal x (t )is
found by the convolution of x (t )with h (t )

y (t )  x(t )  h(t )   x( )h(t   )d

(1.46)

 The system is assumed to be causal,which means that there can

be no output prior to the time, t =0,when the input is applied.
 The convolution integral can be expressed as:

y (t )   x ( ) h(t   ) d (1.47a)
0
1.6.2. Frequency Transfer Function

 The frequency-domain output signal Y (f )is obtained by taking

the Fourier transform
(1.48)
Y( f ) X ( f )H( f )
 Frequency transfer function or the frequency response is defined
as:
Y( f )
H( f )  (1.49)
X(f )
H ( f )  H ( f ) e j ( f ) (1.50)

 The phase response is defined as:

Im{H ( f )} (1.51)
 ( f )  tan 1
Re{H ( f )}
1.6.2.1. Random Processes and Linear Systems

 If a random process forms the input to a time-

invariant linear system,the output will also be a
random process.

 The input power spectral density GX (f )and the

output power spectral density GY (f )are related
as:
2
GY ( f )  GX ( f ) H ( f )
(1.53)
1.6.3. Distortionless Transmission
What is the required behavior of an ideal transmission line?

 The output signal from an ideal transmission line may have some
time delay and different amplitude than the input
 It must have no distortion—it must have the same shape as the
input.
 For ideal distortionless transmission:

Output signal in time domain

y (t )  Kx(t  t0 ) (1.54)

 j 2 ft0
Output signal in frequency domain
Y ( f )  KX ( f ) e (1.55)

H ( f )  Ke  j 2 ft0 (1.56)
System Transfer Function
What is the required behavior of an ideal transmission line?

 The overall system response must have a constant magnitude

response
 The phase shift must be linear with frequency
 All of the signal’s frequency components must also arrive with
identical time delay in order to add up correctly
 Time delay t0 is related to the phase shift  and the radian
frequency  = 2f by:
t0 (seconds) =  (radians) / 2f (radians/seconds ) (1.57a)

 Another characteristic often used to measure delay distortion of a

signal is called envelope delay or group delay:
(1.57b)
1 d ( f )
( f )  
2 df
1.6.3.1. Ideal Filters
 For the ideal low-pass filter transfer function with bandwidth Wf =
fu hertz can be written as:

H ( f )  H ( f ) e  j ( f )
(1.58)
Where

1 for | f |  f u
H( f ) 
0 for | f |  f u
(1.59)
 j ( f )  j 2 ft0
e e
(1.60)
Figure1.11 (b) Ideal low-pass filter
Ideal Filters
 The impulse response of the ideal low-pass filter:

h(t )  1{H ( f )}

 

H ( f )e j 2 ft df

fu

 
 fu
e  j 2 ft0 e j 2 ft df

fu

 
 fu
e j 2 f ( t t0 ) df

sin 2 f u (t  t0 )
 2 fu
2 f u (t  t0 )
 2 f u sin nc 2 f u (t  t0 )
Ideal Filters

 For the ideal band-pass filter  For the ideal high-pass filter
transfer function transfer function

Figure1.11 (a) Ideal band-pass filter Figure1.11 (c) Ideal high-pass filter
1.6.3.2. Realizable Filters
 The simplest example of a realizable low-pass filter; an RC filter
1 1
H( f )   e  j ( f ) 1.63)
1  j 2 f  1  (2 f  ) 2

Figure 1.13
Realizable Filters
Phase characteristic of RC filter

Figure 1.13
Realizable Filters
 There are several useful approximations to the ideal low-pass
filter characteristic and one of these is the Butterworth filter

1
Hn ( f )  n 1
1  ( f / fu ) 2n

(1.65)

 Butterworth filters are

popular because they are
the best approximation to
the ideal, in the sense of
maximal flatness in the
filter passband.
1.7. Bandwidth Of Digital Data
1.7.1 Baseband versus Bandpass
 An easy way to translate the spectrum of
a low-pass or baseband signal x(t) to a
higher frequency is to multiply or
heterodyne the baseband signal with a
carrier wave cos 2fct
 xc(t) is called a double-sideband (DSB)
modulated signal
xc(t) = x(t) cos 2fct (1.70)
 From the frequency shifting theorem
Xc(f) = 1/2 [X(f-fc) + X(f+fc) ] (1.71)
 Generally the carrier wave frequency is
much higher than the bandwidth of the
baseband signal
fc >> fm and therefore WDSB = 2fm
 1.7.2 Bandwidth Dilemma

 Theorems of
communication and
information theory are
based on the
assumption of strictly
bandlimited channels

 The mathematical
description of a real
signal does not permit
the signal to be strictly
duration limited and
strictly bandlimited.
1.7.2 Bandwidth Dilemma

 All bandwidth criteria have in common the attempt to specify a

measure of the width, W, of a nonnegative real-valued spectral
density defined for all frequencies f < ∞

 The single-sided power spectral density for a single heterodyned

pulse xc(t) takes the analytical form:

2
 sin  ( f  f c )T  (1.73)
Gx ( f )  T  
  ( f  f c )T 
Different Bandwidth Criteria

(a) Half-power bandwidth.

(b) Equivalent rectangular
or noise equivalent
bandwidth.
(c) Null-to-null bandwidth.
(d) Fractional power
containment bandwidth.
(e) Bounded power
spectral density.
(f) Absolute bandwidth.