Info & Network

Security
Instructor:
Dr.Maaz bin ahmad.
[email protected]
0333-5264960

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 Outline
Cryptographic Techniques review
Vulnerabilities in Network Protocols
Email Security
Web Security
IP security
System Security

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 Some Basics
Attacks, services and mechanisms
Security attacks
Security services
Security Mechanisms
A model for Internetwork Security

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 Definitions
Computer Security - generic name for the
collection of tools designed to protect data
and to stop attackers
Network Security - measures to protect
data during their transmission
Information Security Computer sec +
Network sec

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 Aim of Course
our focus is on Internet Security

consists of measures to prevent, detect, and

correct security violations that involve the
transmission of information.

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 Attacks, Services and
Mechanisms
Security Attack: Any action that
compromises the security of information.
Security Mechanism: A mechanism that is
designed to detect, prevent, or recover from a
security attack.
Security Service: A service that enhances
the security of data processing systems and
information transfers. A security service
makes use of one or more security mechanisms.

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 Services, Mechanisms, Attacks
need systematic way to define requirements
consider three aspects of information
security:
security attack
security mechanism
security service
consider in reverse order

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 Security Service
is something that enhances the security of the
data processing systems and the information
transfers of an organization.

intended to counter security attacks.

make use of one or more security mechanisms

to provide the service.

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 Security Services
Authentication - assurance that the
communicating entity is the one claimed
Access Control - prevention of the
unauthorized use of a resource
Data Confidentiality protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
Data Integrity - assurance that data received is
as sent by an authorized entity
Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by
one of the parties in a communication 9
 Security Services
Confidentiality (privacy)
Authentication (who created or sent the data)
Integrity (has not been altered)
Non-repudiation (the order is final)
Access control (prevent misuse of resources)
Availability (permanence, non-erasure)
Denial of Service Attacks
Virus that deletes files
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 Security Mechanism
a mechanism that is designed to detect,
prevent, or recover from a security attack
no single mechanism that will support all
functions required
however one particular element underlies
many of the security mechanisms in use:
cryptographic techniques
hence our focus on this area
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 Security Mechanism
specific security mechanisms:

encipherment, digital signatures, access

controls, authentication exchange, traffic
padding, routing control etc..

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 Security Attack
any action that compromises the security of
information owned by an organization
information security is about how to prevent
attacks, or failing that, to detect attacks on
information-based systems
have a wide range of attacks
can focus of generic types of attacks
note: often threat & attack mean same
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Security Attacks

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 Security Attacks
Interruption: This is an attack on
availability
Interception: This is an attack on
confidentiality
Modification: This is an attack on
integrity
Fabrication: This is an attack on
authenticity
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 Classify Security Attacks as
passive attacks - eavesdropping on, or
monitoring of, transmissions to:
obtain message contents, or
monitor traffic flows
active attacks modification of data
stream to:
masquerade of one entity as some other
replay previous messages
modify messages in transit
denial of service
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 Model for Network Security
using this model requires us to:
design a suitable algorithm for the security
transformation
generate the secret information (keys) used by
the algorithm
develop methods to distribute and share the
secret information
specify a protocol enabling the principals to use
the transformation and secret information for a
security service
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Model for Network Access Security

using this model requires us to:

select appropriate gatekeeper functions to
identify users

implement security controls to ensure only

authorised users access designated information
or resources

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 Summary
have considered:
computer, network, internet security defs
security services, mechanisms, attacks
-- models for network (access) security

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 Symmetric Encryption
or conventional / private-key / single-key
sender and recipient share a common key
all classical encryption algorithms are
private-key
was only type prior to invention of public-
key in 1970s
 Basic Terminology
plaintext - the original message
ciphertext - the coded message
cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - the study of principles/
methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
cryptology - the field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
Symmetric Cipher Model
 Requirements
two requirements for secure use of
symmetric encryption:
a strong encryption algorithm
a secret key known only to sender / receiver
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
assume encryption algorithm is known
implies a secure channel to distribute key

Types of
ciphertext only
Cryptanalytic Attacks
only know algorithm / ciphertext, statistical, can identify
plaintext
known plaintext
know/suspect plaintext & ciphertext to attack cipher
chosen plaintext
select plaintext and obtain ciphertext to attack cipher
chosen ciphertext
select ciphertext and obtain plaintext to attack cipher
chosen text
select either plaintext or ciphertext to en/decrypt to attack
cipher
 Cryptography
can characterize by:
type of encryption operations used
substitution / transposition / product
number of keys used
single-key or private / two-key or public
way in which plaintext is processed
block / stream
 Brute Force Search
always possible to simply try every key
most basic attack, proportional to key size
assume either know / recognise plaintext
 More Definitions
unconditional security
no matter how much computer power is
available, the cipher cannot be broken since the
ciphertext provides insufficient information to
uniquely determine the corresponding plaintext
computational security
given limited computing resources (eg time
needed for calculations is greater than age of
universe), the cipher cannot be broken
 Classical Substitution Ciphers
where letters of plaintext are replaced by
other letters or by numbers or symbols
or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of
bits, then substitution involves replacing
plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit
patterns
 Caesar Cipher
earliest known substitution cipher
by Julius Caesar
first attested use in military affairs
replaces each letter by 3rd letter on
example:
meet me after the toga party
PHHW PH DIWHU WKH WRJD SDUWB
 Caesar Cipher
can define transformation as:
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C

mathematically give each letter a number

a b c d e f g h i j k l m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
n o p q r s t u v w x y Z
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

then have Caesar cipher as:

C = E(p) = (p + k) mod (26)
p = D(C) = (C k) mod (26)
 Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
only have 26 possible ciphers
A maps to A,B,..Z
could simply try each in turn
a brute force search
given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
do need to recognize when have plaintext
eg. break ciphertext "GCUA VQ DTGCM"
 Monoalphabetic Cipher
rather than just shifting the alphabet
could shuffle (jumble) the letters arbitrarily
each plaintext letter maps to a different random
ciphertext letter
hence key is 26 letters long

Plain: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
Cipher: DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA
 Monoalphabetic Cipher Security
now have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys
with so many keys, might think is secure
but would be !!!WRONG!!!
problem is language characteristics
 Language Redundancy and
Cryptanalysis
human languages are redundant
. letters are not equally commonly used
in English e is by far the most common letter
then T,R,N,I,O,A,S
other letters are fairly rare
cf. Z,J,K,Q,X
have tables of single, double & triple letter
frequencies
English Letter Frequencies
 Use in Cryptanalysis
key concept - monoalphabetic substitution ciphers do
not change relative letter frequencies
discovered by Arabian scientists in 9th century
calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
compare counts/plots against known values
for monoalphabetic must identify each letter
tables of common double/triple letters help
 Example Cryptanalysis
given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
count relative letter frequencies (see text)
guess P & Z are e and t
guess ZW is th and hence ZWP is the
proceeding with trial and error fially get:
it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
direct contacts have been made with political
representatives of the viet cong in moscow
 Playfair Cipher
not even the large number of keys in a
monoalphabetic cipher provides security
one approach to improving security was to
encrypt multiple letters
the Playfair Cipher is an example
invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854,
but named after his friend Baron Playfair
 Playfair Key Matrix
a 5X5 matrix of letters based on a keyword
fill in letters of keyword (sans duplicates)
fill rest of matrix with other letters
eg. using the keyword MONARCHY
MONAR
CHYBD
EFGIK
LPQST
UVWXZ
 Encrypting and Decrypting
plaintext encrypted two letters at a time:
1. if a pair is a repeated letter, insert a filler like 'X',
eg. "balloon" encrypts as "ba lx lo on"
2. if both letters fall in the same row, replace each with
letter to right (wrapping back to start from end),
eg. ar" encrypts as "RM"
3. if both letters fall in the same column, replace each
with the letter below it (again wrapping to top from
bottom), eg. mu" encrypts to "CM"
4. otherwise each letter is replaced by the one in its row
in the column of the other letter of the pair, eg. hs"
encrypts to "BP", and ea" to "IM" or "JM" (as
desired)
 Security of the Playfair Cipher
security much improved over monoalphabetic

was widely used for many years (eg. US & British

military in WW1)
it can be broken since still has much of plaintext
structure
 Polyalphabetic Ciphers
another approach to improving security is to use
multiple cipher alphabets
called polyalphabetic substitution ciphers
makes cryptanalysis harder with more alphabets to
guess and flatter frequency distribution
use a key to select which alphabet is used for each
letter of the message
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after end of key is reached
 Vigenre Cipher
simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
is the Vigenre Cipher
effectively multiple caesar ciphers
key is multiple letters long K = k1 k2 ... kd
ith letter specifies ith alphabet to use
use each alphabet in turn
repeat from start after d letters in message
decryption simply works in reverse
 Example
write the plaintext out
write the keyword repeated above it
use each key letter as a caesar cipher key
encrypt the corresponding plaintext letter
eg using keyword deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
 Security of Vigenre Ciphers
have multiple ciphertext letters for each
plaintext letter
hence letter frequencies are obscured

start with letter frequencies

see if look monoalphabetic or not
if not, then need to determine number of
alphabets, since then can attach each
 Autokey Cipher
ideally want a key as long as the message
Vigenre proposed the autokey cipher
with keyword is prefixed to message as key
knowing keyword can recover the first few letters
use these in turn on the rest of the message
but still have frequency characteristics to attack
eg. given key deceptive
key: deceptivewearediscoveredsav
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext:ZICVTWQNGKZEIIGASXSTSLVVWLA
 One-Time Pad
if a truly random key as long as the message
is used, the cipher will be secure
called a One-Time pad
is unbreakable since ciphertext bears no
statistical relationship to the plaintext
since for any plaintext & any ciphertext
there exists a key mapping one to other
can only use the key once though
have problem of safe distribution of key
 Transposition Ciphers
now consider classical transposition or
permutation ciphers
these hide the message by rearranging the
letter order
without altering the actual letters used
can recognise these since have the same
frequency distribution as the original text
 Rail Fence cipher
write message letters out diagonally over a
number of rows
then read off cipher row by row
eg. write message out as:
m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t
giving ciphertext
MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT
 Row Transposition Ciphers
a more complex scheme
write letters of message out in rows over a
specified number of columns
then reorder the columns according to some key
before reading off the rows
Key: 3 4 1 2 5 6 7
Plaintext: a t t a c k p
o s t p o n e
d u n t i l t
w o a m x y z
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ(check is it
true?)
 Product Ciphers
ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are
not secure because of language characteristics
hence consider using several ciphers in succession
to make harder, but:
two substitutions make a more complex substitution
two transpositions make more complex transposition
but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a
new much harder cipher
this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers.
Assignment: Read & implement adfgvx cipher.